52. Expressive Means Based on the Juxtaposition of Different Parts of the Utterance: Parallelism, Chiasmus, Anaphora, Epiphora.

The necessary condition in parallel construction is identical, or similar, syntactical structure in two or more sentences or parts of a sentence. Parallel constructions are often backed up by repetition of words (lexical repetition) and conjunctions and prepositions (polysyndeton). Pure parallel construction, however, does not depend on any other kind of repetition but the repetition of the syntactical design of the sentence. Parallel constructions may be partial or complete. Partial parallel arrangement is the repetition of some parts oа successive sentences or clauses. Complete parallel arrangement, also called balance, maintains the principle of identical structures throughout the corresponding sentences. Parallel construction is most frequently used in enumeration, antithesis and in climax, thus consolidating the general effect achieved by these stylistic devices. There are two main functions of parallel construction: semantic and structural. On the one hand it suggests equal semantic significance of the component parts, on the other hand, it gives a rhythmical design to these component parts, which makes itself most keenly felt in balanced constructions. Parallel construction is used in different styles of writing with slightly different functions. When used in the matter-of-fact styles it carries, in the main, the idea of semantic equality of the parts, as in scientific prose, where the logical principle of arranging ideas predominates. In the belles-lettres style parallel construction carries an emotive function. Chiasmus belongs to the group of stylistic devices based on the repetition of a syntactical pattern, but it has a cross order of words and phrases. The structure of two successive sentences or parts of a sentence may be described as reversed parallel construction, the word order of one of the sentences being inverted as compared to that of the other. (Down dropped the breeze, the Sails dropped down) Chiasmus is sometimes achieved by a sudden change from active voice to passive or vice versa. It must be remembered that chiasmus is a syntactical, not a lexical device, it is only the arrangement of the parts of the utterance which constitutes this stylistic device. In the famous epigram by Byron : In the days of old men made the manners; manners now make men is no inversion, but a lexical device. Both parts of the parallel construction have the same, the normal word order. However the witty arrangement of the words has given the utterance an epigrammatic character. This device may be classed as lexical chiasmus or chiasmatic repetition. Syntactical chiasmus is sometimes used to break the monotony of parallel constructions. But whatever the purpose of chiasmus, it will always bring in some new shade of meaning or additional emphasis on some portion of the second part. Repetition is one of the devices having its origin in the emotive language. Repetition when applied to the logical language becomes simply an instrument of grammar. When used as a stylistic device, repetition acquires quite different functions. It does not aim at making a direct emotional impact. On the contrary, the stylistic device of repetition aims at logical emphasis, an emphasis necessary to fix the attention of the reader on the key-word of the utterance. Repetition is classified according to compositional design. If the repeated word (or phrase) comes at the beginning of two or more consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases, we have anaphora. If the repeated unit is placed at the end of consecutive sentences, clauses or phrases we have the type of repetition called epiphora. The rhythmical function must not be underestimated when studying the effects produced by repetition.

parallelism (involves a repetition of identical syntactical constructions and contributes to rhythmic and melodic unification of adjacent sentences; it serves either to emphasise the repeated element, or to create a contrast, or underlines the semantic connection between sentences).

Parallel constructions are based on the repetition of the whole syntactical structure of several successive sentences.

He had been called. He had been touched.He had been summoned. (R.W.)

anaphora a…, a…, a…

(Implies identity of initial parts of two or more autonomous syntactical segments (verse lines, stanzas, paragraphs, etc.), adjacent or at a distance in the text, yet obviously connected semantically),e.g.:

I love your hills,I love your walls,I love your flocks and bleating. (Keats)

Epiphora – repetition of the final word or word-group. E.g. “I wake up and I am alone, and I walk round Warlley and I am alone, and I talk with people and I am alone” (J.Braine). (AR)