1. Speak on the morphological characteristics of the infinitive The category of time correlation Inf has no tense category. The time of the action is indicated by the finite verb. It is/was/will be exciting to study languages. The time reference of the inf is relative: it can be understood only through its reference to the time of the finite verb. Inf express the time of the action as prior to, simultaneous with or posterior to the action expressed by the finite verb. The actions of non-prefect inf may: -take place at the same time with the action of the finite verb - follow the action of the finite verb - precede the action of the finite verb Perfect inf 1. the action of perfect inf precedes the action of the finite verbs 2. perfect inf can be used to denote actions which were not carried out The category of aspect The category of aspect is revealed in the opposition of the common and continuous aspect forms. The category of voice The opposition of the active and passive forms reveals the category o voice.
2. Speak on the syntactic characteristics of the inf and the inf as a parenthesis The verbal character of the inf is expressed in its combinability Inf can be modified by adverbials I am afraid I cannot drive faster. Inf can take prepositional objects He was taught to look after himself. Inf of transitive verbs can take direct objects He seemed to know everything. Inf manifest their nominal character when they are used as subjects, predicatives, objects Inf can be used in some fixed phrases that are added to speech of writing to give extra information, to show the way the speaker thinks and feels about sb or smth, to provide an explanation upon the content of the whole sentence needless to say not to speak of/not to mention not to say so to speak strange to say that is to say to be honest/frank to be precise to begin with to crown it all to make things worse to cut a long story short to put it briefly to put it in another way to put it mildly/plainly/crudely/clearly to repeat to say the least to speak the truth to sum up
3. Speak on morphological characteristics of the participle The verbal character of participles is revealed through their morphological categories. P1 has the categories of time and voice, thus appearing in 4 forms. Though P2 has one form is possesses the potential meaning of voice and correlation. (P1: active and passive, non-perfect and perfect).
The category of time correlation Ps have no aspect category; they do not refer an action directly to the past, present or future. The time reference of Ps is relative, they express the time of the action in reference to the action of the finite verb. Relative time reference is expressed through the category of time correlation which reveals itself in the opposition of non-perfect and perfect forms /doing, being done, having done, having been done/.
The action of non-perfect P1 may
Take place at the same time with the action of the finite verb: the action of non-perfect P1 and that of the finite verb are simultaneous. /Walking down the street, he felt lonely./
Follow the action of the finite verb. Such participles denote posterior actions, they show succession. /I fell hurting my knee./
Precede the action of the finite verb. In such context there is no time lapse between the events.
Non-perfect Ps 1 of certain verbs can denote actions that precedes the action of the finite verb. In such context the action of the finite verb closely follows the action of P1, and there is no time lapse between events.
Non-perfect P1 describing a prior action follows a verb
-of sense perception; -of motion: arrive, approach, come, descend, enter, leave, reach, turn, etc.;
-associated with motion: close, grasp, open, push, put, put on, seize, take, take off, etc.
However, we use perfect P1 of these verbs to show and emphasize prior actions (A) when there is a lapse of time between the action of the P and that of the finite verb /Having heard about your achievement, I came to London to say ‘bravo’/; (B) when the action denoted by the participle is durative /Having pulled the cart for hours, the pony is starving/.
Perfect P1 denotes an action that precedes the action of the finite verb. It denotes an action that was carried out prior to that of the finite verb./Having done all the chores, a real Cinderella rushes to a ball./
P2 denotes a state of being finished and complete: this condition is a result of a prior action. In other words, though the action of P2 precedes that of the finite verb, the resultant state can be simultaneous with it./My husband looked proudly at the repaired roof./
Non-perfect and perfect Ps can refer actions or states to no particular time./We followed the road leading to Manchester. I have never believed stories told by fishermen./
The category of voice
P1 of transitive verbs has voice distinctions. The opposition of the active and passive forms reveals the category of voice. Active Ps denote that the action is performed by the subject; passive participles show that the subject is acted upon. /Compare 4 forms/. The subject of the P doesn’t necessarily coincide with the subject of the sentence. A word modified by the participle can act as its subject/I don’t know the man playing the violin./The nominal element of a predicative construction serves as the subject of the participle/I heard the boy playing a wonderful piece./ P2 of transitive verbs are always passive in their meaning: drawned, discussed, done, etc. There are intransitive verbs that can be used to form P2 which are always active in meaning. P2 of an intransitive verb denotes passing into a new state /arrived guests, faded pictures, risen sun etc./ As some verbs can be used both transitively and intransitively, their P2 can have both active and passive meanings/The letter had some hidden meaning. He lay hidden in the leaves./
4. Speak on the syntactic characteristics of the participle and the participle as a parenthesis Syntactic functions refer to constituents in a sentence – subject, predicates, attributes, adverbials, etc. – and relationships between them. The ways in which Ps function in sentences reflect their verbal, adjectival and adverbial character. Syntactically, the verbal character of the P is expressed in its combinability. Ps have the combinability of verbs. (1)Ps can be modified by adverbials /Smiling heartily; promptly served/; (2) Ps1 of transitive verbs can take direct objects /Grabbing the book, he rushed out/. The adjectival character of Ps is manifested in their syntactic function: -Ps can function as attributes or predicatives. The adverbial character of the P also reveals itself syntactically. Ps can function as adverbials of different types. In sentences participles may form: (1) participle phrases that operate as one syntactic whole. Thus, we find phrasal attributes, phrasal predicatives and phrasal adverbials; (2) predicative complex constructions that operate as one syntactic whole. We find complex subjects, complex objects and complex adverbials.
Non-perfect active P1 or P2 can be used within a syntactically independent element – parenthesis. In this function we always find participle phrase never a single participle. A parenthesis is added to a speech r piece of writing: *to give extra information; *to show the way the speaker or writer thinks and feels about somebody or something; *to provide an explanation or comment upon the whole sentence (broadly/generally, legally, properly, roughly, strictly speaking; speaking for myself, personally; speaking/talking of the devil; putting it mildly, crudely; stated curt, sharply, bluntly, crudely; simply stated; as mentioned above. In writing parentheses are separated from the rest of the text by commas, dashes or brackets.
5. Speak on morphological characteristics of the gerund
The morphological characteristics of the gerund reveal its verbal nature.
The category of time correlation Gerund do not have the category of tense and can not refer an action directly to the present, past or future. Their time reference can be understood through the reference of the action expressed by the gerund to the time of the finite verb. The category of time correlation is revealed in the opposition of non-perfect and perfect forms. The non-perfect gerund may describe: 1. the action that takes place at the same time with the action of the finite verb He is/was/will be surprised at seeing us. 2. an action that follows the action of the finite verb She has an odd feeling about going to the party the following day. 3. an action that refers to no particular time Stretching exercises helped him to relax. 4. an action that precedes the action of the finite verb Non-perfect gerund can be used to express actions that precedes the action of the finite verb - after verbs of recollection: recall, recollect, remember - after verbs/predicative word group of gratitude: appreciate, be grateful for, the thankful for, be glad about, thank for, express gratitude for , show gratitude for - after verbs/predicative word groups of blame and reproach: accuse, blame, be responsible for - after verbs of punishment: disciple for, fine for, penalize for - of reward: admire, approve of, commend for/on - after the prepositions: on, upon, after and since Perfect gerunds in these cases emphasize the gap of time between the actions of the finite verb and the gerund.
The category of voice Gerunds o transitive verbs have voice distinctions. I prefer reading to being read. Gerunds are active in form, but passive in meaning after the predicative word group be worth and the verbs of deserve, need, require and want. The essay was not worth reading.
6. Speak on syntactic characteristics of the gerund The verbal character of the gerund is expressed in its combinability. - gerund can be modified by adverbials I enjoy walking slowly in the park. - gerund can take prepositional objects I have no objections to hearing about his travel again. - gerunds of transitive verbs take direct and indirect objects His hobby is watching TV. Thank you for providing us shelter. The nominal character of the gerund reveals itself in its syntactic functions and combinability. - gerunds can function as subjects, predicative or object It’s so nice meeting you. What pleased him was dancing with the princess. I like dining out. - gerunds used as predicatives, objects, attributes or adverbials can take prepositions The way to achieve success is by joining our effort. Fear sometimes stops you from doing stupid things. Robinson never lost hope of leaving an island. On taking off the plane disappeared in the clouds. - gerunds can combine with nouns in the possessive case or possessive pronouns I am proud of my students’ coming first in the tournament. Excuse my calling so late, Jess. - gerunds can combine with the determiner NO There is no avoiding the fight. Gerunds perform their syntactic functions alone or in combination with other words.
7. Speak on verbals as subjects Inf subjects follow 2 pattern. In p1 the inf subject if placed 1st. To compromise appears advisable. P2 is characteristic of everyday language. The inf subject is introduced by a formal subject IT. It appears advisable to compromise. Interrogative sentences follow p2. any form of the inf can be used o express the subject. simple To understand is to forgive. phrasal To ask him again was impossible. complex For him to earn bread was a problem. Gerund subjects follow 3 patterns. p1. Gerund subjects precede the predicates. Any form can be used. Learning without thought is labour lost. p2. The introductory IT is placed 1st to emphasise the meaning of the gerund subject. Any form of the gerund can be used. Common predicates in such cases are: be of no use, be no good, be worth, make all the/no difference It’s no good beating about the bush. p3. The introductory THERE is used to emphasise gerund subjects preceded by NO. Only non-pergect gerunds follow this pattern. There is no avoiding the fight. simple Studying is important. phrasal Studying computers becomes important nowadays. complex Irene’s studying foreign languages will do her a world of good.
8. Speak on the inf as a part of a predicate Predicates are mainly expressed by non-perfect inf, both active and passive. The inf can be: simple His plan was to return. phrasal His plan was to keep the affair secret. complex His plan was for us to join the group. The subject of the CNP with an inf predicative can be expressed by: 1. certain nouns – action, advice, aim 2. words all, the most, the least with an attribute clause attached to them 3. a single inf, inf phrase or inf construction To see is to believe. 4. a clause What Napoleon wanted to do was to fight the whole world. Inf can be used as a part of a predicative. It’s mainly the non-pefect active inf. She is easy to deal with. The inf used as a part of a predicative follow: -adj -nouns In this function the inf are active in form but passive in meaning. Japanese is difficult to learn.
9. Speak on the participle as a apt of a predicate The predicate is the second main part of the sentence and its organizing centre. Structurally, it can be either simple or compound. There are compound nominal and compound verbal predicates.
Ps in simple verbal predicates Non-perfect P1 active after the auxiliary ‘be’ is used in continuous tense forms. P2 after the auxiliary ‘be’ is used in passive tense forms. P2 after the auxiliary verb ‘have’ is used in perfect tense forms.
Ps in compound predicates The P as a predicative. A predicative is a notional part of a compound nominal predicate. The structural part of a compound nominal predicate is expressed by a link verb. Non-perfect active P1 and P2 can function as predicatives. Non-perfect active P1 is used as a predicative after link verbs look, remain, seem. With the link-verb ‘be’ P1 becomes adjectivized and loses its verbal character. P2 is used as a predicative after a wider range of link verbs. Besides look, remain., seem we can employ be, become, get, grow, feel, stay and turn. P2 of a transitive verb denotes a state which is usually the result of a prior action. Occasionally Ps2 of transitive verbs can also be used predicatively. These Ps are passive in form, but active in meaning.