11. Latin borrowings.

1)Dates back to the I B.C. There was the time of peaceful contacts between the Germ.tribes and the Romans. They taught the germ many useful things and the words denoting them were also borrowed. F.ex. germ. learnt how to produce cheese and butter and the words themselves were borrowed. Started to grow vegetables, fruits: pepper, pea, pear. 2)7 A.D. time of Christianization of England. As the lang. of Chris.Church was Latin such words as priest, monk, candle, school were borrowed. First schools were church ones: scholar, magister. 3)Renaissance period. It was the time of development of science and culture. So abstract words and scientific terms were borrowed from Latin: intelligent, moderate, atom, datum, method.

12. French borrowings.

1)Norman French which dates back to the 11-13 centuries. This period started in 1066 when British were defeated by William The Conqueror. People spoke two languages at that time: eng. And fr., fr was penetrated all the spheres of life: military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle; education: pupil, lesson, library, pen; legal terms: court, judge; everyday life: table, plate, dinner, supper; admin.terms: government, state, power, administration itself. In the 14 the eng. Parliament passed a law according to which Eng. Was considered the main lang in the country. 2)Parisian Fr. dates back to the Renaissance time. Paris cultural center of Europe. Political and social institution were also developing so such words as police, regime, machine were borrowed. These two groups of borrowing were the most important in the development the Eng. Voc. And lang. as whole.

13. Assimilation of borrowed words.

Cut-take, government-distance – both groups are borrowed words but 1^st are no longer felt as borrowed one. Borrowed words get adopted to the norms of the lang. They get assimilated in it. Ass. Is adapting to the norms of the language. The degree of ass. Depends on the time of borrowing. The word cup was borrowed from Latin I B.C. and it is completely ass in the lang. The word government is a later borrowing and it’s partially ass. Borrowed words get ass. In 3 main fields: phonetic, gram., semantic. 1)The degree of ph. Ass. May be shown by comparing Norm.Fr. and Parisian Fr. borrowings: ballet [бэлей] still sounds the same. 2)Gram. Consist in a complete change of the paradigm of the borrowed word: table-tables. Some words are still in the ass. Process now: datum-data, formula-formulas-formulae[i:]. 3)By semantic ass. We understand the adopting of the word to the system of meanings of the voc. In O.E. harvest meant урожай и осень (время сбора урожая). When in M.E. the word autumn was borrowed from Fr. the word harvest lost one of its meaning.

14. The concept of ling. Meaning.

Lexical meaning is studied by a special branch of Lex. Called Semantics. The definition of a word meaning may b given on the bases of the so-called “referentional approach”: ling.form-consept-referent (object of reality). The form is connected with the concept and through this it with the referent. So there’s no direct connection between the form and the referent. We have to remember that we deal with a special form reverberation – with the one which is associated with ling.form. In other words if we take this component away we won’t have ling.category. So meaning is the reverberation in the human mind of an object of reality which becomes a fact of lang. because of its constant association with a definite ling.form. Lex.meaning is the m. which we find in all gram.forms of the words: to go-went-gone-going… Lex.m. is the same that’s the meaning of “movement”.

Aspects of lex.meaning: 1)denotational is the most important. While communicating we convey and receive inf. So this aspect refers to the notional basis of com.: I’ll bring the book (revolver). Don’t worry. In this 2 sentences the subj. matter of com is dif. This aspect helps to realize the nominative function of the lang. 2)connotational shows the attitude of the speaker to what he’s saying: Jack assured (said hat for him) us that the play was interesting.

The connotational aspect includes emotive charge, evaluation, expressiveness and imagery: 1)emotive charge may be shown on the word notorious: he’s notorious for his goings-on (the person is known for his bad qualities) / famous for his books. 2)E.c. is usually combined with evaluation. It may be positive or negative: Antie is coming / he is a dog of person. 3)Expressiveness is the part of c.a. which makes the effect produced on the listener stronger. I saw a large / huge snake. 4)the prime minister did everything o bridge the relations between countries. In most cases all the elements of the connotation are linked together: you’re an ass, Jack! Pragmatic is that part of lex.meaning that gives an inf. about the situation of communication and about its participants. This inf. provided both by grammar and voc. Gram. Gives the time of the situation. Some inf. can be given by the semantics of the word: the pronoun this in the combination “this country” indicates the country in which the speaker is at the present moment.

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the concept of polysemy,Viongra.'s teory of the types of lexical meaning. Polysemy is theexistence with one word of several connected meanings.Polysemantic words are bigger in number,then monesemantic words.A word an object of reality taking into a cound it’s qualities(characteristics),very often the qual.of the object are identical with the qual.of other one;because of this one in the same word is used to denote this object.f.e-1)part of human body2)tongues of the blame.The identity is the identity of the form.In other words the world around us is varied and it’s object are many;the means of the language are limited so one word names several objects.All the meaning of the word make up it’s semantic structure.In the structure the meaning are connected they have a common semantic component.Polysemantic words are used the same context,the same context makes is clear which of the meanings is used.f.e-1)blind man-the one who not to see.2)blind hand writing-that is difficult to read,to underst.In the Vinogradov classification there are 3 types of lexical meaning:1)direct-nominative meaning which denotes in object without the help of the context(sweat,honey)2)nominative-derivative meaning,the name of the object is transferred to another one having smth. in common with the first one:sweat face,boys.3)lingu.bound meaning;grammat/bound meaning,the meaning of the word depends on the syntactical construction where is used.f.e-1)he is ill.2)He has ill manners(у него плохие манеры).When a predict.” Ill” has the meaning of “болел”.When an attrib.it’s means bad.Lexical-bouned meaning,the meaning of the word depends on it’s combinability:f.e haevy guns.Phraseological bound meaning.This are lexically or grammatically bounded meanings which are used in elimited number of situation f.e:Would you like a drink?