Middle English Subperiods
The Norman Conquest and Middle English vocabulary
Middle English Grammar: general overview
Middle English Grammar: the Noun
Middle English Grammar: the Verb
Middle English Grammar: the Pronoun 1. Middle English Phonology
8. Middle English Graphics
Middle English Subperiods
Traditionally Middle English (ME) is subdivided into 3 periods in accordance with historical events which influenced the course of history and had an effect on the English language:
1066-1204 Decline of English
Norman invasion (1066), French conquest, the Norman French dominated in major spheres of life
1204-1348 Rise of English
loss of Normandy in 1204
many Norman landholders chose to stay in England, spoke Anglo-French dialect
French remained official language of England until second half of 14th c.
134&-1509 Dominance of English
by mid to late 14th c. English was normal medium of instruction; in 1362 English became official language of legal proceedings, everyone in England spoke English by end of 14th c., displacing of French, Norse, and Celtic languages
Ё1аск Death 1348-1351, death of one third of English population, social chaos, labor shortages, emancipation of peasants, wage increases, rise in prestige of English as language of working classes
1509 Reign of Henry VIII marks the end of ME
According to another periodization, ME falls into Early ME (12-13 centuries) and Late ME (14-15 centuries).
The second half of the 11th century is the transitional period from Late Old English to Early Middle English. Early Middle English is the language of the 12th and 13th centuries. Middle English is fully developed as a literary language by the second half of the 14th century.
Late Middle English and the transition to Early Modem English takes place from the early 15th century and is taken to have been complete by the beginning of the Tudor period in 1485.
2. The Norman Conquest and Middle English vocabulary
William the Conqueror, the Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered England and the Anglo-Saxons in 1066 AD. The new overlords spoke a dialect of Old French known as Anglo-Norman. The Normans
were also of Germanic stock ("Norman" comf|ifrom "Norseman") and Anglo-Norman was a French dialect that had considerable Germanic influences in addition to the basic Latin roots.
Prior to the Norman Conquest, Latin had been only a minor influence on the English language, mainly through vestiges of the Roman occupation and from the conversion of Britain to Christianity in the seventh century (ecclesiastical terms such as priest, vicar, and mass came into the language this way), but now there was a wholesale infusion of Romance (Anglo-Norman) words.
Norman came into use as a language of polite discourse and literature, and this fundamentally altered the role of Old English in education and administration, even though many Normans of the early period were illiterate and depended on the clergy for written communication and record-keeping. Even now, after nearly £ thousand years, the Norman influence on the English language is still apparent, though it did not begin to affect Middle English until somewhat later.
Merchants and lower-ranked nobles were often bilingual in Anglo-Norman and English, whilst English continued to be the language of the common people. Middle English was influenced by both Anglo- Norman and, later, Anglo-French. The influence of the Normans can be illustrated by looking at two words, beef and cow. Beef, commonly eaten by the aristocracy, derives from the Anglo-Norman, while the Anglo-Saxon commoners, who tended the cattle, retained the Germanic cow. Many legal terms, such as indict Jury, and verdict have Anglo-Norman roots because the Normans ran the courts. This split, where words commonly used by the aristocracy have Romantic roots and Words frequently used by the Anglo-Saxon commoners have Germanic roots, can be seen in many instances.
Consider these pairs of Modern English words. The first of each pair is derived from Old English and the second is of Anglo-Norman origin: pig/pork; chicken/poultry, calf/veal cow/beef wood/forest, sheep/mutton, house/mansion, worthy/honourable, bold/courageous,freedom/liberty
Sometimes French words replaced Old English words; crime replaced firen and uncle replaced earn. Other times, French and Old English components combined to form a new word, as the French gentle and the Germanic man formed gentleman. Other times, two different words with roughly the same meaning survive into modern English. Thus we have the Germanic doom and the French judgment, or wish and desire.
The role of Aiiglo-Norman as the language of government and law can be seen in the abundance of Modern English words for the mechanisms of government that derive from Anglo-Norman: court Judge, jury, appeal, parliament. Also prevalent in Modern English are terms relating to the chivalric cultures that arose in the 12th ceiltury. Early on, this vocabulary of refined behaviour began to work its way into English, imports of the Normans who made their mark on the English language as much as on the territory of England itself
This period of trilingual activity developed much df the flexible triplicate synonymy of modern English. For instance, English has three words meaning roughly "of or relating to a king":
kingly from Old English,
royal from French and
regal from Latin.
The end of Anglo-Saxon rule did not of course change the language immediately. Although the most senior offices in the church were filled by Normans, Old English continued in use in chronicles such as the Peterborough Chronicle until the middle of the 12th century. The non-literate would have spoken the same dialects as before the Conquest, though these changed slowly until written records of them became available for study, which varies in different regions. Once the writing of Old English comes to an end, Middle English has no standard language, only dialects that derive from the dialects of the same regions in the Anglo-Saxon period.
In 1204 AD, King John lost the province of Normandy to the King of France. This began a process where the Norman nobles of England became increasingly estranged from their French cousins. England became
the chief concern of the nobility, rather than their estates in France, and consequently the nobility adopted a modified English as their native tongue. About 150 years later, the Black Death (1349-50) killed about one third of the English population. And as a result of this the labouring and merchant classes grew in economic and social importance, and along with them English increased in importance compared to Anglo-Norman.
English literature reappeared after 1200, when a changing political climate and the decline in Anglo- Norman made it more respectable. The Provisions of Oxford, released in 1258, was the first English government document to be published in the English language after the Norman Conquest. In 1362, Edward III became the first king to address Parliament in English. By the end of the century, even the royal court had switched to English. Anglo-Norman remained in use in limited circles somewhat longer, but it had ceased to be a living language.
Geoffrey Chaucer is the most famous writer from the Middle English period, and The Canterbury Tales is his best-known work. Although the spelling of Chaucer's English varies from that of Modern English, his works can be read with minimal assistance.
By 1362, the linguistic division between the nobility and the commoners was largely over. In that year, the Statute of Pleading was adopted, which made English the language of the courts and it began to be used in Parliament.
Important texts for the reconstruction of the evolution of Middle English out of Old English are the Ormulum (12th century), the Ancrene Wisse and the Katherine Group (early 13th century, see AB language) and Ayenhite oflnwyt ( 1340).
The Late Middle English period was a time of upheaval in England. After the deposition of Richard II of England in 1399, the House of Plantagenet split into the House of Lancaster and the House of York, whose antagonism culminated in the Wars of the Roses (1455-1487). Stability came only gradually with the Tudor dynasty under Henry VII.
During this period, social change, men coming into positions of power, some of them from other parts of the country or from lower levels in society, resulted also in linguistic change. Towards the end of the 15th century a more modern English was starting to emerge. Printing began in England in the 1470s, which terided to stabilise the language. With a standardised, printed English Bible and Prayer Book being read to church congregations from the 1540s onward, a wider public became familiar with a standard language, and the era of Modern English was under way.