- •3. The phoneme as a linguistic unit. Its definitions and functions.
- •5. Methods of the identification of phonemes in a language
- •6. The system of vowel phonemes. Problems of diphthongs and vowel length
- •In accordance with the principle of structural simplicity and economy American descriptivists liquidated the diphthongs in English as unit phonemes.
- •8. Problems of the phonemic inventory
- •10. Types of transcription
- •11. The structure and functions of syllables in English
- •2) Similarly, a division between [ekstr] and [ə] would be unnatural.
- •In some cases we may take into account the morphemic structure of words. For example, standing consists of two syllables; on phonetic grounds [stæn - diŋ). On grammatical grounds [stænd - iŋ].
- •12. Theories of syllable formation and division
- •2. However the majority of linguists treat the syllable as the smallest pronounceable unit which can reveal some linguistic function.
- •14. Pronunciatin varieties of british english
- •Rp speakers of Standard English (those who speak Standard English without any local accent) ;
- •15. American english pronunciation
- •2) Peculiarities in the stress patterns of words in ga as compared to rp.
- •3) Peculiarities of ga intonation.
- •16. The syllable as a prosodic unit. Word stress, its nature and functions.
- •If we compare stressed and unstressed syllables in the words contract ['kσntrækt], to contract [kən'trækt], we may note that in the stressed syllable:
- •17. The accentual tendencies in English. Basic word stress patterns in English
- •18. Speech prosody. Its perceptible qualities and acoustic properties.
- •19. Prosody and intonation. Utterance prosody and its linguistic functions.
- •Intonation is a language universal. There are no languages which are spoken without any change of prosodic parameters but intonation functions in various languages in a different way.
- •2. Components of intonation and the structure of English intonation group.
- •In the pitch component we may consider the distinct variations in the direction of pitch, pitch level and pitch range.
- •1. Short pauses which may be used to separate intonation groups within a phrase. .
- •2. Longer pauses which normally manifest the end of the phrase.
- •3. Very long pauses, which are approximately twice as long as the first type, are used to separate phonetic wholes.
- •3. The phonological aspect of intonation.
- •20. The components of utterance prosody and units of its analysis.
- •I'd 'like to 'give you a 'piece of ad`vice.
- •It follows that the units of the rhythmic organization of an utterance are stress-groups, which may be as well called rhythmic groups.
- •21. The tonal subsystem of utterance prosody and units of its analysis.
- •22. The structure of a prosodic contour (intonation group) in English. The functions of its elements. Supraphrasal unities
- •In spite of the rain and bitter cold | they all came in time.
- •24. Utterance stress in English, its phonetic nature . And function. The relationship between utterance stress and word stress in English
- •In its identificatory function utterance stress provides a basis for the hearer's identification of the important parts of the utterance and for his understanding of the content.
- •Types of utterance stress. Factors conditioning the location of utterance stress.
- •In its identificatory function utterance stress provides a basis for the hearer's identification of the important parts of the utterance and for his understanding of the content.
- •Speech rhythm and utterance stress.
- •It follows that the units of the rhythmic organization of an utterance are stress-groups, which may be as well called rhythmic groups.
- •28.The phonetic nature and types of speech rhythm in different languages.
- •I'd 'like to 'give you a 'piece of ad`vice.
- •It follows that the units of the rhythmic organization of an utterance are stress-groups, which may be as well called rhythmic groups.
- •29. Speech tempo and pausation
- •It is common knowledge that by slowing down the tempo of speech we can make an utterance or part of it more prominent, thus underlining the semantic importance of it.
- •Voiced pauses have usually the quality of the central vowel [ 3: (э) ] with or without nasalization [ э (m) ]. They are used to signal hesitation or doubt and are therefore called hesitation pauses.
Phonetics as a branch of a linguistic studies in the broad sense, comprising segmental sounds (vowels and consonants) and prosodic phenomena(pitch, stress, tempo, rhythm). Phonetics as a science is a branch of linguistic. Being a science in its own right, it is at the same time closely connected with other linguistic sciences – grammar, lexicology, stylistic and the history of the language.
4 main Branches of phonetics:
1. Articulatory phonetics is concerned with the study of sound as a result of the activities of speech organs. It deals with our voice-producing mechanism and the way we produce sounds.
2. Perceptual phonetics occupies itself with the study of man’s perception of segmental sounds, pitch variation, loudness, and duration.
3. Acoustic phonetics is concerned with the acoustic aspect of speech sounds.
4. Phonology, or functional phonetics is purely linguistic branch of phonetics. It deals with the functional aspect of sound phenomena. Phonology sets out to discover those segmental and prosodic features that have a differential value in a language, and it established the system of phonemes and prosodemes.
Articulatory classification of speech sounds.
VOWELS
Classification: according to the horizontal movement of the tongue; to the vertical movement; to the position of the lips; to the degree of the muscular tension of the articulatory organs; to the force of articulation at the end of a vowel; to the stability of articulation; to the length of a vowel.
according to the horizontal movement : close (high), mid and open (low)
to the position of the lips, whether they are rounded, spread or neutral: rounded and unrounded.
to the degree of the muscular tension of the articulatory organs: tense and lax. All the long vowels are believed to be tense, while short vowels are lax.
to the force of articulation at the end of a vowel: free and checked. Free vowels are pronounced in anopen syllable with a weakening in the force of articulation towards their end. These are long monophtongs and diphthongs and unstressed short vowels. Checked vowels are those in the articulation of which there is no weakening of the force of articulation.
to the stability of articulation : monophtongs and diphthongs, diphthongoids.
to the length long and short (differs from the positional length).
CONSONANTS
An indispensable constituent of a consonant is noise. The source of noise is in obstruction. 3 types of obstruction: 1)complete occlusive, 2) constriction, 3)occlusion-constriction.
According to the type of obstruction and the manner of the production of noise: occlusives(plosives and nasal), constrictives ( Fricatives and oral sonants), occlusive-constrictive.
According to the active speech organ which forms an obstruction: labial (bilabial – p, b, m, w, labio-dental – v, f) , lingual (forelingual – t, d, n, s, z, r, mediolingual – j) , Backlingual – k, g).
According to the place of obstruction: dental, alveolar (t, d, n, l, s, z), post-alveolar(r) , palatal (j) , palato-alveolar (t) , velar.
According to the presence or absence of voice: voiced (b, d, g, v, z) and voiceless (p, t, k, f, s, t).
According to the force of articulation : lenis(muscular tension is weak) and fortis(is strong).
According to the position of the soft palate: oral(p, b, t, d, k, g, f, v,) and nasal (m, n).
3. The phoneme as a linguistic unit. Its definitions and functions.
The phoneme - the smallest linguistically relevant unit of the sound structure of a given language which serves to distinguish one word from another. The phoneme is a minimal abstract linguistic unit realized in speech in the form of speech sounds opposable to other phonemes of the same language to distinguish the meaning of morphemes and words.
Firstly, the phoneme is a functional unit .In phonetics function is usually understood as a role of the various units of the phonetic system in distinguishing one morpheme from another, one word from another or one utterance from another. The opposition of phonemes in the same phonetic environment differentiates the meaning of morphemes and words: e.g. bath-path, light-like. Sometimes the opposition of phonemes serves to distinguish the meaning of the whole phrases: He was heard badly - He was hurt badly. Thus we may say that the phoneme can fulfill the distinctive function.
Secondly, the phoneme is material, real and objective. That means it is realized in speech in the form of speech sounds, its allophones. The phonemes constitute the material form of morphemes, so this function may be called constitutive function.
Thirdly, the phoneme performs the recognitive function, because the use of the right allophones and other phonetic units facilitates normal recognition. We may add that the phoneme is a material and objective unit as well as an abstract and generalized one at the same time.
Basic functions of the phoneme are:
1. Constitutive – phoneme constitutes words, word combinations etc.
2. Distinctive – phoneme helps to distinguish the meanings of words, morphemes
3. Recognitive – phoneme makes up grammatical forms of words, sentences, so the right use of allophones
3. The classification of English consonant sounds
4. Manifestation of phonemes in speech. Phoneme and allophone
Allophones of a certain phoneme are speech sounds which are realizations of one and the same phoneme and witch can’t distinguish words.
allophones of the same phoneme, no matter how different their articulation may be, function as the same linguistic unit. Phonemes differentiate words like tie and die from each other, and to be able to hear and produce phonemic differences is part of what it means to be a competent speaker of the language. Allophones, on the other hand, have no such function: they usually occur in different positions in the word (i.e. in different environments) and hence cannot be opposed to each other to make meaningful distinctions.
5. Methods of the identification of phonemes in a language
The distributional method is based on the phonological rule that different phonemes can freely occur in one and the same position, while allophones of one and the same phoneme occur in different positions and can’t be phonologically opposed to each other. This method is purely formal method of identifying the phonemes of a language.
The semantic method is based on the phonological rule that a phoneme can distinguish words when opposed to another phoneme or zero in an identical phonetic position.