2. Free Word Combinations and Set Expressions. Their Classification and Stylistic Use

Free word groups present combinations of words which display structural, semantic and syntactic relation between the units/ There may be differentstructural types of word combinations subordinate (silent people) and coordinate ( children and grown-ups) word combinations, Subordinate word combinations are nominal(a red cap), verbal (went slowly)? adverbal (very much)

Phraseological units are word-groups that exist in the language as ready-made units. Like words, they express a single notion and are used in a sentence as one part of it. They are also called idioms by British and American lexicographers. Unlike phraseological units proper, proverbs and sayings do not always function as word-equivalents.

Semantic classification.

V.V.Vinogradov classified phraseological units according to the degree of motivation of their meaning.

1) Fusions. The degree of motivation is very low, they are highly idiomatic, we cannot guess the meaning of the whole from the meaning of its components, cannot be translated word for word into other languages (at sixes and sevens, red tape; бить баклуши).

2) Unities. The meaning of the whole can be guessed from the meanings of its components, but it is transferred (metaphorically or metonymically) → to play the first fiddle.

3) Collocations. Words are combined in their original meaning, but their combinations are different in different languages. (bear a grudge- bear malice).

Structural classification.

( A.I. Smirnitsky)

One-top units (are like affixed words)

1. units of the type to give up (to art up, to nose out).

2. Units of the type to be tired (to be interested in).

3. Prepositional-nominal phraseological units. They are equivalents of unchangeable words: prepositions, conjunctions, adverbs(on the doorstep, on the nose).

Two-top units (are like compound words).

a) attributive-nominal (a month of Sundays –целая вечность)

b) verb-nominal phraseological units ( to read between the lines – понимать скрытый смысл)

c) phraseological repetitions (now or never – теперь или никогда).

Syntactical classification.

I.V. Arnold classified phraseological units as parts of speech.

a) noun phraseologisms denoting an object, a person, a living being (latchkey kids – ребенок работающих родителей)

b) verb phraseological units, denoting an action, a state (to be on the beam- быть в курсе дела)

с) adjective phraseologisms denoting a quality.(loose and goose – нескладный)

d) adverb phraseologisms (tooth and nail – изо всех сил)

e) preposition phraseologisms (in the course of, on the stroke of)

f) interjection phraseologisms (Catch me! – ни за что!)

In I.V. Arnold’s classification there are also sentence equivalents: proverbs (are usually metaphorical – Too many cooks spoil the broth) and sayings (are, as a rule, non-metaphorical - Where there is a will, there is a way).

A.V. Kunin classified phraseological units according to the way they are formed.

Primary ways:

1. by means of transferring the meaning of terminological word-groups ( to link up – 1.стыковать космические корабли.2. знакомиться)

2. simile, contrast, metaphor ( in a nutshell –короче говоря)

3. alliteration (a sad sack –несчастный случай)

4. rhyming (by hook or by crook)

5. using synonyms (to pick and choose)

6. by means of expressiveness (Hear, hear!)

7. distorting a word-group ( odds and ends)

8. using archaisms ( in brown study means “in gloomy meditation”)

9. using sentence in a different sphere of life (that cock won’t fight – can be used metaphorically

10. using unreal images ( to have butterflies in one’s stomach - испытывать волнение)

Secondary ways:

1. conversion (to vote with one’s feet → vote with one’s feet)

2. changing the grammar form ( Make hay while the sun shines is transferred into a verbal phrase – to make hay while the sun shines)

3. analogy ( curiosity killed the cat – care killed the cat)

4. contrast ( kiss of death – kiss of life)

5. shortening (you can’t make a silk purse out of a sow’s ear → to make a sow’s ear)

6. borrowing ( to take the bull by the horns -Latin)