- •4. Me phonetics: vowel (reduction, shortening/lengthening, development of oe monophthongs in me).
- •5. The Earliest Period of Germanic History
- •6. Development of Old English diphthongs inМ.English
- •7.Basic grammatical features of Germanic languages
- •8. The Great vowel shift
- •10. New English Phonetics: loss of unstressed –e, the change of –er into –ar, a into ǽ. Rise of new phonemes.
- •11. Old English. Historical background.
- •Вопрос 12 major vowel changes in ne. Great vowel shift. Vocalization of [r].
- •13. Old and Modern Germanic languages.
- •14. Middle and New English noun: morphological classification, grammatical categories.
- •15. Old English Dialects and Written Records.
- •16. Oe Verb. Grammatical categories and morphologiacal classification.
- •Вопрос 23 oe Strong verbs
- •Вопрос 24the origin of Modern English irregural verbs.
- •18. Latin borrowings in the epoch of Renaissance
- •19. French Loan-word
- •20.Scandinavian influence.
- •21) The subject-matter phonetics
- •24) General classification of speech sounds
- •25) Organs of speech.
- •2. The Larynx & the Vocal Folds
- •3. The Articulators
- •26) Classification of English consonants.
- •27 Vopros
- •Intonation
- •39)The Phoneme Theory
- •1. The material aspect
- •2. The abstract aspect
- •3. The functional aspect
- •Trancription / Notation
- •41)The Object of Lexicology.
- •41)The Definition of Linguistics.
- •43)Wordbuilding
- •Classifications of english compounds
- •Conversion
- •Abbreviation
- •Graphical abbreviations
- •Initial abbreviations
- •44)Affixation
- •54. Archaisms. Neologisms. The classification of words according to time.
- •54.3. Four classification of words in point of time
- •55. Minor types of word formation
- •56. Word-composition. Criteria of composition.
- •56.1. Principles (problems) of composition
- •57. The problem of the Word. The theory of the Word.
- •58. Variants and dialects of the English language.
- •59. Phraseology as a linguistic science.
- •60. The Etymology of the English words. Words of native origin. Borrowings in the English language.
- •61.The subject of theoretical grammar and its difference from practical grammar.
- •62. The main development stages of English theoretical grammar.
- •63)General characteristics of the structure of modern english.
- •64) Morphemic and Categorical Structure of the Word.
- •65. Grammatical category and its characteristic features. Grammatical Classes of Words
- •67. Notional words and function words in Modern English.
- •68. Different interpretations of the meaning of the English articles. The main functions of the English articles.
- •69. Principal parts of the sentence. Their general characteristics
- •70. The subject. Means of expressing the subject.
- •71. The predicate as the main means of expressing predication. Types of predicates.
- •73. Word-combination (wc) and their basic types.
- •74. Syntax as part of Grammar. Main Units of English syntax.
- •75.Classification of sentences based on their communicative function
- •76.The category of tense in me
- •77.The category of case of English nouns
- •79. The grammatical category of number
- •80. The category of mood
25) Organs of speech.
The various organs which are involved in the production of speech sounds are called speech organs (also known as vocal organs). The study of speech organs helps to determine the role of each organ in the production of speech sounds. They include the lungs, the vocal folds, and most importantly thearticulators.
1. The Lungs.The airflow is by far the most vital requirement for producing speech sound, since all speech sounds are made with some movement of air. The lungs provide the energy source for the airflow. The lungs are the spongy respiratory organs situated inside the rib cage. They expand and contract as we breathe in and out air. The amount of air accumulated inside our lungs controls the pressure of the airflow.
2. The Larynx & the Vocal Folds
The larynx is colloquially known as the voice box. It is a box-like small structure situated in the front of the throat where there is a protuberance. For this reason the larynx is popularly called the Adam’s apple. This casing is formed of cartilages and muscles. It protects as well as houses the trachea (also known as windpipe, oesophagus, esophagus) and the vocal folds (formerly they were called vocal cords). The vocal folds are like a pair of lips placed horizontally from front to back.
3. The Articulators
Articulators transform the sound into intelligible speech. They can be either active or passive. They include the pharynx, the teeth, the alveolar ridge behind them, the hard palate, the softer velum behind it, the lips, the tongue, and the nose and its cavity.
4. The Lips: The lips also play an important role in the matter of articulation. They can be pressed together or brought into contact with the teeth. The consonant sounds which are articulated by touching two lips each other are called bilabial sounds. For example, /p/ and /b/ are bilabial sounds in English. Whereas, the sounds which are produced with lip to teeth contact are calledlabiodental sounds. In English there are two labiodental sounds: /f/ and /v/.
The tongue is responsible for the production of many speech sounds, since it can move very fast to different places and is also capable of assuming different shapes. The shape and the position of the tongue are especially crucial for the production of vowel sounds. Thus when we describe the vowel sounds in the context of the function of the tongue, we generally consider the following criteria:
• Tongue Height: It is concerned with the vertical distance between the upper surface of the tongue and the hard palate. From this perspective the vowels can be described as close and open. For instance, because of the different distance between the surface of the tongue and the roof of the mouth, the vowel /i: /has to be described as a relatively close vowel, whereas /æ / has to be described as a relatively open vowel.
• Tongue Frontness / Backness: It is concerned with the part of tongue between the front and the back, which is raised high. From this point of view the vowel sounds can be classified asfront vowels and back vowels. By changing the shape of the tongue we can produce vowels in which a different part of the tongue is the highest point.