Lexical expressive means and devices

Among lexical peculiarities the first to be mentioned is imagery. In its broad sense it stands for impressions born by objective reality in human beings. In its narrow sense imagery can be understood as trops that is stylistic devices based on a shift of meaning. The analyses of imagery is important for the study of style because imagery presents one of the most personal subjective element in the style of writers. The author's choice of images is practically unlimited and when discussing imagery we are interested in the sphere in which the writer draws his images.

The contextual meaning of a word may differ from its lexical meaning. The interrelation between lexical and contextual meaning may be based on the similarity of two notions (metaphor) and the end of contiguity (metonymy) and on the opposition between the notions (irony).

Metaphor

Is a transfer of the name of the object to another on the association of similarity or likeness.

Ex: life is but a walking shadow

The image in metaphor is created by way of comparing two objects which are dissimilar but have some points in common. Metaphor is a hidden comparison. When the comparison is expressed, we have a simily

Ex: maiden like moths are ever caught by glare

Maiden and moths belong to heterogeneous classes of objects and Byron has found the concept "moth" to indicate one of the secondary features of the concept "maid" that is being easily lured.

In metaphor the comparison is the result of the substitution of the figurative name of an object or its direct name

Ex: this little boy is a mule

One must distinguish between metaphor used as styl device and words of metaphoric origin which are called ling metaphor (стертая метафора). In a ling metaphor the comparison is forgotten and the image has faded as a result of long usage.

Ex: the foot of a bed , the lack of a chair, the mouth of the bottle, the head of a nail.

Styl metaphors are usually subdivided into stereotype and individual. A stereotype metaphor is an expressive means established in the language:

Ex: the ladder of fade, the salt of life, a flight of imagination

Individual metaphors are the result of the author's imagination depending on his suggestion of the idea. Compared with the stereotype metaphor, individual metaphor is much more picturesque and more emotional.

Ex: her lips were tire; the room was a bowl of heat

Metaphors used in elevated prose or poetry often have a poetic coloring.

Ex: die flowers, silver showers

Every notional part of speech can be used in a figurative sense as a metaphor. In other words, different parts of speech can be subjected to the metaphoric transfer but nouns and verbs are more suitable for metaphoric transport of meaning.

Ex: the duck swallowed him (verbal metaphor) The eyes are windows of a soul (nounal metaphor)

Less frequently adjectives may be used as metaphors and most metaphors expressed by adjectives derived from nouns:

Ex: a great powdery cloud

Structurally metaphors can be divided into simple or elementary and prolonged (extended).

A simple (elementary) metaphor is a metaphor contained within one word or word combination which is used in the figurative meaning.

Ex: his voice turned pale

Prolonged metaphor - several metaphors linked together. It's a styl device in which one word used in the figurative meaning. Prolonged metaphors are never found ready-made, they are individual.

Ex: the tight little days turned seven times and clicked on the tooth of the week which, in turn, engaged the slow constantly moving wheel of the month.

Metaphoric symbols

In our case it means an image which expresses in a form easy to memorize one of the main seems of a literary work. A metaphor becomes a symbol when it is repeated and central. Sometimes symbolic images are embodied in the title of the work

Ex: cat in the rain = it stands to denote not only the natural phenomenon but also a loneliness of a girl in a foreign country.

Gram and lex choices impose on writer's definite limitations. As to the usage of metaphor the author's choice is practically unlimited. Metaphor may be regarded as graphic means of expressing a notion. But at the same time one mustnt forget that in creating an image to denote a more abstract notion, metaphor involves a highly subjective interpretation of the notion. Therefore, metaphors are hardly ever used in scientific texts. In popular science fiction metaphors are more frequently used to make science fiction problems more understandable to the reader. Metaphors can be used in news papers, oratorical style where they make shapeness of criticism. Metaphors used in speech are usually unextended, established but havent lost their figurativeness.

Ex: dont like to be a little fish in a big pond.

Metonymy

A word of greek origin meaning changing of names. Metonymy is the kind of transfer of the name of the object to another, but this transfer is based on the association of contiguity but not similarity. Metaphoric transfer may be conditioned by various relations:

1. the use of a symbol for a thing symbolized Ex: to serve the crown.

2. A char-tic feature can be used instead of its possessor ex: A million olive uniforms and cotton prints make a million military man.

3. The use of instrument instead of actions ex: Give every man thine ear and few thy voice.

4. Exact noun may stand for an abstract or v-v ex: He had a lion in his voice.

Synecdoche

Is related to metonymy and is included into the metonymic group. It's the simplest kind of metonymy that is using the name of a part to denote the whole or v-v. Ex:The village sang and danced.

Antonomasia

Is closely related both to metaphor and metonymy. It's the use of the name of a historical literary, mythological or biblical personage to express general idea. Ex: Hooligan (was a proper name), Ms Tooth (characteristic of a person), He bought a Tolstoy (not a person but book).

Irony

The stylistic device based on the interaction of the denotative and contextual meaning. It consists of a word, or a word group in the opposite to their denotative meaning. One sentence may be enough to make irony clear. Ex: Such a punctual person, he never comes on time.

Taking in the narrow sense, irony is the use of a positive estimation instead of negative one. Ex: It was delightful to find oneself in a foreign country without a penny in one's pocket.

Polysemantic effect

Can be detected only when a rather large part of the utterance is subjected to an analysis. Unlike this device the two stylistic devices zeugma and pun lie on the surface of the text.

Zeugma is the use of a word in the same grammatical but different semantic relations to two neighboring words in the context. The semantic relation is one the one hand and transferred on the other. Ex: He had taken three weeks off and a ticket to Mentone.

Pun (каламбур) is another stylistic device based on the interaction of two well known meanings of a word or a phrase.

It's difficult to draw fast distinction between zeugma and pun. The only reliable feature is a structural one. Z. is the realization of two meanings with the help of the verb, which is made to refer to different object - direct and indirect. The pun is more independent . There need not necessary be a word in the sentence to which the pun word refers. The pun depends on the context. Thus, the title of Oscar Wild's play "The Importance of Being Ernest" has a pun in it as the name of the hero and the adjective meaning "seriously minded" are both present in our mind.

Puns are often used in riddles and jokes. Ex: What is the difference between a school-master and an engine-driver? One trains the mind, the other minds the train.