The number of tenses in english

3 Tenses 2 tenses

- Present - Present

- Past - Past

- Future + a set of means to express future

(shall/will + inf = analytical form) (shall/will + inf = free combination

with a modal verb)

THE CATEGORY OF ASPECT

Aspect (semantically shows) the development of an action in time.

SUBSIDIARY TEMPORAL FEATURES OF ASPECT:

- complete / incomplete

- single / repeated

- concrete / indefinite in time

- point (continuing)- temporary / permanent

ASPECT =/= TENSE

MEANS OF EXPRESSING ASPECT

• Morphological

common VS continuous aspect forms

• Lexical

aspectual classes of verbs complex sentences with time clauses

Previously aspect was recognized as a semantic feature of the word. So grammaticians spoke of different groups of senses: continuous, perfect etc.

Grammarian subdivided the verbs into 2 clauses:

• STATIVE

NON STATIVE

- terminative (imply a limit beyond which the action of the verb cannot continue)

- non-terminative/ durative (dont have any such limit)

Lexical aspect - aspectual features present in the inner semantics of the verb.

ASPECTUAL CLASSIFICATIONS"

• Traditional, used for searching purposes

- stative VS dynamic

- terminative VS durative

Z. Vendler (1967) - states (know, have)

- activities (run, walk)

- accomplishments

- achievements (find, reach)

• A. SCHOPE (1989)

- states

- simple processes (sing)

- quantified processes (smile)

- punctual process and changes (knock)

- events with phases of change (accomplishments included) (improve)

- achievements

THE CATEGORY OF MOOD Mood and Modality

Reasons for difficulties and controversy in discussing mood as a grammatical notion

Mood is taken up as a separate grammatical category. Or M is discussed one of the more general semantic category of modality.

In principal, all the verbal expression may be characterized as modally coloured/oriented. Wherever we produce a verbal expression, we expose a certain attitude to what we say, and from this angle we can say that Modality is one of the most speaker oriented categories.

Speaking about Modality, we can say that it is the linguistic category that shows relations between the speaker and the situation of objective reality that the speaker describes by means of a verbal phrase.

In simple terms, we can say that Modality is the statement of the speaker's attitude towards what they say. In fact, modality is characterized as a highly subjective semantic category, because the choice of meaning of expressive modality highly depend on the speaker's interpretation of the mentioned facts. In a strict grammatical sense Modality is to be associated with the grammatical forms and other grammatical elements responsible for the expression of our attitude towards what we say. The essence of Modality doesn't change.

In the sense grammatical forms make it possible to introduce a distinction between objective facts (something that really exists) and facts that do not exist, or at least fact that are viewed as hypothetical. Distinction between facts and non-facts.

We have to consider such attitudes as possibility, necessity or desirability of different actions. To describe this distinctions, Grammar possesses at least 3 possible ways. Any predicate verb has a Mood.

We also have a specific lex-gram class of Modal verbs. Finally, besides Mood forms and Modal verbs, we have Modal Words (mostly adverbs and adverbial expressions).The natural question: do we have to use all of them at a time, or one of them only?

If we approach the idea of grammatical Modality: it is the mood form of the V that is absolutely obligatory, while Modal verbs and words are optional.

• MOOD as a representation of the functional-semantic category of modality

- Mood (in finite verbs): Go! - He goes... - He would go...

- Modal verbs: he can / must / will go - Modal words: Probably he goes...

• MOOD as a historical development resulting in co-existence of:

- Old English synthetic forms: God save the Queen! Be it as it may...

- Modern English analytical forms: should / would + infinitive

Different number of Moods. Different number of status of verbal mood forms=> HOMONYMY or POLYSEMY???

• One form = several meanings (should do)

- You should come and see it (advice, desirability)

- Should he come ask him to wait (Unral condition)

• One meaning = several forms (unreal condition)

- If i took... - Should i take...

- If i had taken...

What makes the situation still more complicated is that grammarians of different schools support different academic traditions: they approach this assimetry discussing it from a semantic viewpoint and other viewpoints, which produces diversity of descriptions.

(БАРХУДАРОВ, ДОЙЧБАЙН !!!! Классификации для ответа на экз)

2 Moods (Бархудаев) - 16 Moods (Дойчбайн)

• БАРХУДАРОВ's approach.

FORMAL APPROACH.

Начинает рассуждение с материальных единиц, которые передают модальные отношения.

He STOPPED doing it ('remote' in time)

I wish he STOPPED doing it ('remote' from reality)

The forms are identical! But there are differences: one sentence is synthactically simple, the other is syntactically complex. The only difference is in the syntactic environment rather that in form itself.

By him, if we want to speak about a real action or an unreal one, the only things is to change the syntactic structure of the sentence. As a result, he says that in the Eng language there exist 2 moods only. The Indicative Mood and the Imperative Mood. But there is no Subjunctive Mood, as it is formally not expressed.

This viewpoint was criticized by Palmer. Polysemantic forms cannot express mutually exclusive meaning.

STOPPED in the 1 case - real fact. STOPPED in the 2 case - unreal fact.

REALITY vs IRREALITY.

=> 2 identical form! POLYSEMY!!!

If we decide to use the verb to be, we'll see a formal distinction when we speak about real and unreal facts.

He WAS there. I wish he WERE there.

We cannot disregard the behaviour of the verb TO BE! Thus the point of criticism here is that in Eng in terms of Mood we deal with the fact of HOMONYMY. They share a certain idea: ENg past tenses as well as forms expressing unreality convey the idea of remoteness (удаленность).

Actions remote from the speaker in time VS remote from reality.

• FUNCTIONAL APPROACH: 3 moods

ХЛЕБНИКОВА

Meaning-based + formal considerations. Wecan speak about INDICATIVE Forms Mood. These Forms express actions/facts that exists; something that is absolutely objectives and is to be taken for granted.

• IMPERATIVE Mood Forms

• CONJUNCTIVE Mood Forms

IM and CM gave specific sphere of meaning. They express different degrees of problematic supposition.

Разные степени предположения относительно существования действия.In terms of forms, she insists that in modern E these forms historically secialized in the functions of unreality.

• ИЛЬИШ

CLassification 1: meaning-oriented

- Inducement

- Possibility

- Unreal condition

- COnsequences of unreal condition

Classification2: Form-oriented

6 moods described as pattern of use

We should describe Mood starting with FOrm.

• SEMANTIC APPROACH

СМИРНИЦКИЙ, 6 MOODS

STarted from meaning, subdividing the sphere of grammatical modality and sphere responsible for real, unreal and hypothetical actions.

REAL ACTIONS:

INDICATIVE

Hypothetical Actions Unreal actions

(do not contradict reality) (contradict reality)

IMPERATIVE SUBJUNCTIVE 1 SUNJUNCTIVE2 (suppositional) (conditional)

SEMANTIC-AND-FORMAL APPROACH: 12 MOODS

Permissive Conditional

The category of Tense and Mood contact closely.

When we talk aout conditions, permissions and so on, we only think of an action!

• M. DEUTCHBEIN

FORMAL-AND-SEMANTIC APPROACH

16 MOODS: modal verb + inf is a mood form

• Cogitativus: 4 moods

• Optativus: 4 moods

• Voluntativus: 4 moods

• Expectativus: 4 moods

When form are used to express these meanings, they should be viewed as individual forms.

MOOD as grammatical category: opposed meanings are represented by opposed forms.

In the Russian Soviet tradition the gram description of the eng language deals with 3 Moods:

- Indicative- Imperative

- Conjunctive (Subjunctive)

The complicated nature of meaning in the sphere of mood, grammarians say they within this particular category we dont deal with an opposition of 2 forms, but multinomial opposition (многочленная оппозиция), which is illustrated by the box:

I TAKE a book - TAKE a book!

I TAKE a book - If i TOOK a book / If i had TAKEN a book / Should i TAKE a book

NOTE 1.

Transposition of Mood forms is based on a similarity in meaning

• Indicative and Conjunctive

(If he TURNS UP tell him to wait / SHOULD he TURN UP, tell him to wait)ve and Imperative(LAUGH - and the world laughs with you / If you LAUGH, ...)Why is it possible in the Eng language? The Indicative form is the unmarked element of the opposition. And being morphologically unmarked, it can have different environment, it can interfere with other forms.

Additional grammatical connotations.

THE IMPERATIVE MOODis viewed as an item of controversy in the grammatical description of Mood.

• We know that the IMPERATIVE Mood expresses enducement, which means that such an atction is viewed as desirable. And at the same time Imperative form expresses an action that is to be performed in the future.

• DEFECTIVE FORM

The form of the IMP mood seems to be grammatically defective:

- person indifferent

- doesnt show any tense or aspect distinctions

=> IMP mood forms are quite close to the infinitive.

• RESTRICTED SPHERE OF USE

We have to bear in mind that in the eng lang still exists such expressions as DONT BE TALKING and HAVE DONE (finish your work)

These expressions are discusses: they seem to contradict the idea that IMP mood expresses the future! These structures are reserved as idiomatic expressions and they are said to express the impatience of the speaker to see the action performed.IMP Mood forms are only found in dialogical speach!!!

• LEXICAL RESTRICTIONS

We can use any verb in the indicative. Can we use any verb as an Imperative?! NO!ONLY: verbs of motion (come, leave) and verbs expressing physical states (be quiet, sleep)

Higher intellectual activity, social activity, emotions.

• SYNTACTICALLY RESTRICTED

to one type of sentences only! Imperative sentences. We can hever produce questions or declarations. It is a unique case in grammar when the existence and development of a specific morphological form has syntactic consequences.

6.11 - MISSING

13.11

THE CATEGORY OF PHASE

(PRIORITY, ORDER, TIME CORRELATION)

Basic points of controversy:

1) To what grammatical category do perfect forms belong?

2) What is the grammatical meaning of perfect forms?...a unique, particular meaning is to be ascribed to grammatical form (Смирницкий)

(Perfect forms are treated as representatives of a particular grammatical category.)

Non-perfect (tense or aspect) forms denote actions taking plac at a certain moment (period) of time in the present / past / future

Categorial meaning: DEFINITE TIME REFERENCE + NON-PRIORITY

Perfect forms denote actions PRIOR to a certain moment / period of time / action / situation in the present / past / future

Categorial meaning: PRIORITY. Perfect Form only!)

• Linguists criticized Smirnitskii's treatment of the perfect forms in the sense that not all perfect forms are responsible for the idea of priority only.

The Present Perfect form: besides the idea of priority also conveys they idea of continuity between some prior action and its result that remains ... for the moment of time discussed.

Such continuity is non existent in the past perfect or the future perfect.

Those linguists who criticized Smirnitskii, reproached him for simplifying things.

• Smirnitskii argued: due to the analytical character of the Eng language the Pres Perf form is not the only grammatical phenomenon that bears additional grammatical connotations.

He stressed it that the meaning of priority as the basic grammatical shade is observed in the Pres Perf just like it is observed in the Past and Future Perfect. The idea of priority is the grammatical focus in all the perfect forms.

The appearance of additional gram meaning in the Pres Perf may be viewed as a result of the not-specific character of the Present Tense or Present Time Correlation. In the same sense we say that forms of the Pres Indefinite convey quite a number of gram meanings on the one hand, on the other hand appearance of extra shades of meaning also characterizes the Present Continuous, when we speak about such sentences as "he is always grumbling".

+ специфика аспектуальных глаголов. Видовые параметры - новые, наименее системно и логически выделенные. Из форм сказуемого развились видовые формы. Видо-вр сис-ма призвана акцентировать внимание на видовых характеристиках (акцент на первой части термина).ВВС английского глагола - признак, способ репрезентации того, что в общем значении сказуемого (новая информация) все компоненты смысла оказываются представленными отдельной частью формы; сложность формы возникает для того, чтобы показать, что каждый компонент грам значения имеет отношение к подлежащему и должен быть вербализован в таком порядке, чтобы показать, что происходит с подлежащим.

1) He works as a teacher.(What are you?) Ситуация синхронна нашему существованию, но она неопределена. Положение человека.

2) He is working as a teacher.IS:Ситуация синхронна нашему существованию.ING:Характер временности, длительности и незавершенности действия.

3) He has worked as a teacher for 2 years.На момент говорения действие осуществлялось в течение 2 лет, но мы не можем говорить о его возобновляемости / продолжаемости.

Период предшествования по отношению точки отсчета.(Чем сложнее аналитическая форма - тем она более контекстно звисима)4) He has been working as a teacher sinse 1942. (Язык - проекция культуры / мышления: в европейских языках всё основано трехкомпонентной словесной структуре)

HAS: на момент речи

BEEN: речь идет о действии, которое имело место до момента речи

ING: длительный, временный и непрерывный характер.

Поступление информации по степени важности.

PHASE

the term was borrowed from physics. It was suggested by American linguists: Smith and Trugger (40s XX century)

The term PHASE borrows reference to the electric ... theory, which shows a special relation between the activity of electrons and the effect of their activity.

Besides the term PHASE they also borrowed the terms CURRENT PHASE and PERFECT PHASE.

Исходя из видения лингвистика и физики, что можно сказать про перфектные формы:

a verb in the CURRENT PHASE denotes an action which is simultaneous with its effect. (the action is in phase with its effect)"He came swiftly": CAME denotes that the action and the effect of this action are perseived simultaneously. He was seen the moment he came.

Если задавать вопрос Has he come home, мы рассчитываем на положительный ответ, который дал человек, увидевший / услышавший приход тго чела..effect of which is delayed. In other words: the effect of the action is out of phase with the action itself.

In terms of practical use we can say that a Perfect form removes our attention from the action itself and relocates it on the effect of the action. "He has opened the book" They specify here that the action "opened" is of limited duration and as the form implies was completed in the past. But the effect of this action that the book is open now is felt in the present, thus the effect is delayed.

В пределах каждой перфектной формы, мы имеем дело с 2 самостоятельными предложениями: 1 - Past Simple, 2 - настоящее время (результат).