THEORETICAL GRAMMAR

Салькова Марина Алексеевна

1 и 2 семестр: 12 лекций, семинары, итоговый контрольный тест.

Устный экзамен летом.

Автомат (только 5): посещение лекций, активное участие в семинарах (самостоятельные выступления, ответы, презентации), тестовые работы на 5, подготовить небольшое проектное исследование в 1 и 2 семестре.

Экзамен: беседа с экзаменатором по билету: 1 вопрос по материалу 1 семестра, 2 вопрос по материалу 2 семестра.

Зачетные тесты - письменные работы (36-7 вопросов).

Проектные исследовательские задания (задания появятся в октябре).

Вопросы к экзамену есть на кафедре!

LITERATURE:

1) Ilyish B.A. The Strycture of Modern English

2) Бархударов Л. С. Очерки по морфологии английского языка.

3) !!! Сорокина Т. С., Салькова М. А., Брылева Н.П. Методические задания к семинарским занятиям по теоретической грамматике английского языка.

4) !!! Иванова И.П., Бурлакова В. В., Почепцов Г. Г. Теоретическая грамматика современного английского языка.

5) !!! Сорокина Т. С., Салькова М. А., Мачина О. А., Григорьева Ю. Б., Селиванова Е. Е. Рабочие тетради по теоретической грамматике английского языка.

6) Козлова Л. А. Теоретическая грамматика (попросить прислать на почту на кафедре)

3) и 5) - МОЖНО ПОЛЬЗОВАТЬСЯ НА ЭКЗАМЕНЕ !!!

THE SUBJECT-MATTER OF THEORETICAL GRAMMAR (4.9.12)

What is grammar? Types of grammatical descriptions, historical trends in grammar. Distinction between Morphology and Syntax.

GRAMMAR AS THE STRCTURE OF LANGUAGE:

- Is part of language and does not dependent on the general linguistic theory

- Exists for all languages.

- Is to be learned by every language user

Grammar is an objective phenomenon. Part of our everyday communication.

GRAMMAR AS THE SCIENCE OF THE STRUCTURE OF LANGUAGE

- Is part of the general linguistic theory, and studies morphology and syntax (in foreign linguistics: also phonology and semantix)For the sake of scientific convenience, grammar is divided into a several spheres. In foreign descriptions grammar is broader.

- Exists for the languages that have been theoretically described/investgated

- Is not obligatory for using language correctly.Пользуясь грамматикой, мы учимся использовать правильные формы. Мы присваиваем грамматическую грамматику как набор схем, правил.Теоретическая грамматика: изучение того, каким образом язык формируется в замкнутую и самодостаточную систему.TYPES OF

GRAMMATICAL DESCRIPTION:

• by aim: -prescriptive

- descriptive (try to describe objectively a grammatical phynomenon as it is observed in speech: from the surface into the depth)

• by perspective and material

- synchronous (a certain period of time) vs. diachronous (historical development of languages and changes of grammatical forms in time)

- specific language grammar (monolingual) vs. comparative (to get back to the mother tongue of the 2 related languages) vs. universal (compare as many languages as possible)

• by theoretical grounds and methods (СМ 2 СЕМЕСТР)

- taxonomic (descriptive): traditional vs. structural ...

APPLICATION OF APPROACHES EXEMPLIFIED:

Practical english grammar aims at a descriptive enumeration of grammatical facts (taxonomy) and prescription their "correct employment".

Result: coherent and intelligible speech acceptable at a certain historical period (of sensible duration).

THEORETICAL GRAMMAR OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE

interprets grammatical (language) facts, which presupposes:

• treatment of the grammatical system as a complicated unity, with special reference to the interconnections and interdependences between the elements of the unity

identification of grammatical phenomena and their hierarchy of major scientific viewpoints, with special reference to their explanatory force, contradictions, and reasons for relative inconsistency

NB: Interpretation involves identification of the approach employed for analysis: - structural (formal)meaningful (semantic)structural-and-semantic-functional (answers the question: how different language units can work to rich a certain .. of the speaker?

cognitive (very specific)Theoretical grammar deals with language science. Language science is both subjective and objective. Every material sign has both a form (objective) and a meaning (subjective) which is interpreted in different ways. There were grammatists who tried to concentrate on the form of grammatical elements. There were grammatists who tried to concentrate on grammatical meanings: why different grammatical meanings appear? What kind of meaning can be introduced?

11.09 - MISSING

18.09

MORPHOLOGY AND SYNTAX

Morphological Units:

Lower units form parts of higher units thus influencing their form and meaning. Secondly: the tendency is that the higher the step the hierarchy is, the longer become units in linear ... .

В состав текста как устройства наивысшего лигв порядка, физически будут включены словоформы словосочетания итд. От морфемы до текста - 5 ступеней.

If the morpheme is the smallest unit, it means that it represents the first level of morphological hierarchy.

What kind of a notional morpheme is? If morphemes are the smallest units, they dont cover whole words. We should split our words.

Clear = cl + ear

=> cl and ear exist as specific forms. Being sounds, they do not convey any meaning. We hear these sounds, we can identify them in the speach, but there's no meaning.

Clears = clear + s

The element "clear": we can draw information from this element: это основа для всех производных слов, это носитель основного значения.

the element "clear" possesses a certain form, shape. We deduce that "clear" is a very important phenomenon: it is a STEM / BASE / ROOT. Whatever you call it, "clear" has a lexical meaning for all the words forms with its help. It possesses the main lexical meaning and it is a lexical morpheme, because using it, you produce new forms as well as new words. At the same time: we can have a look at a zero element, s, ed, ly.

Clear+0

Clear+sClear+edClear+ly

In grammar we speak about morphemes that are devoid of the lexical meaning, however, grammatical morphemes convey grammatical meanings that help us predict a possible behaviour of a grammatical phenomenon/object in sentences and make certain conclusions about the part of speech of the grammatical object discussed.

The notion of the morpheme is not a new item in linguistics.

L. Bloomfield: "Language"

He criticized the lack of respect to the specific features different morphemes have.

Morphemes may be identified as lexical or grammatical depending on their functions. This definition specifies difference between L and G morphemes. Morphemes are meaningful, but meanings can be different. In speech morphemes function as allomorphs/variants.

Allomorphs fall into 2 groups:

- phonologically conditioned

- morphologically conditioned

PC: even if we take up the most widespread morpheme of plurality and analyze its use, we will come to the conclusion, that S uses 3 possibilities:

[s] - after voiceless[z] - voiced

[iz] - after similants

=> in grammatical books we read that S builds the plural form of the noun. But in fact S can be pronounced in 3 ways. These are allomorphs.

PV allomorphs depend on the phonological environment of morphemes. On the other hand, we can speak about MC allomorphs which presupposes something else.

MC allomorphs are those variants of the basic grammatical morpheme that perform the same grammatical function in forms of the same parts of speech. Thus if we know that S is the main suffix to convey the idea of plurality, we recognize that in the noun CHILDREN the idea of plurality is presented by EN.

In ship we deal with the zero morpheme of plurality.

Morphemes:

- roots (responsible for the main lex meaning)

- affixes : * grammatical * lexical

- prefixes (only lexical meaning)

- suffixes:

*lexical

* grammatical

Derivational affixes: help us derive new words.

Inflexional affixes: help us produce new forms of words

Морфемы - это формообразущая единица.

Систематизация морфем. Как описывались морфемы? Список морфем появился как система оппозиций: здесь морфема есть, а здесь нет. Сами по себе морфемы нежизнеспособны. => морфемы выписывались из слов.

WORD-FORM

Form building morphemes do not exist as separate units. They are always parts of certain word forms. W-Fs exist as relative opposed unit representing a certain grammatical category.

Thus both Morphemes and W-Fs are characterized by the relative nature. They are registered thanx to the existence of their opponent. The relational property of a W-F is based on the fact that W-Fs as well as Morphemes are always bound in use. This idea is interpreted very simply. Whenever you change a W-F, you immediately have to change the environment. Because if you change the form of a word, you immediately change the grammatical meaning, that is conveyed by this form.

Boy. This boy goes to school every day.

These boys go to school every day.

In analytically oriented languages this difference is not conspicuous.

Not every word is at th same time a word-form.

In modern english we deal with smth that looks like a basic form of ...

There's very little difference between what you see in dictionaries and what you are speaking. There may be simplifications. We realise that whenever we put a word in a sentence, it immediately becomes a WF, because it comes to be associated with other words.

Modern Eng forms may be:

- synthetic

- analitical

Synthatic form building presupposes changes of grammatical possibilities within the word itself. To acquire a new gram meaning, a word doesnt go beyond its boundaries.

Go - went, child – children

Materially we deal with frameworks of one word.

Analytical forms inform several components - several individual WF, when they are combined, they start producing a totally new grammatical meaning.

Thus in Synthetic form-building in modern english we still have several ways/instruments:

- suffixation- sound-interchange

- suppletion

Suffixation:

there are 9 suffixes in modern english.

S (boys, boy's, ours, takes), ed (played, united), ing (saying), er (funnier), est (funniest), en (spoken, oxen), ren (children), ne (mine), m (him).

Как английскому языку удается обходиться только 9 суффиксами? У него есть аналитические формы. Активность! Один и тот же суффикс имеет несколько грамматических значений.

Если есть одна и та же оболочка и она работает, создавая несовместимые друг с другом единицы: ОМОНИМИЯ.

English suffixes, being few in number, are extremely frequently used, because the synthetic form they build participate in analytical forms.

Secondly, ME gram suffixes are capable of producing grammatical homonyms. Thus they cover the grammatical means of different parts of speech.

Suffixes: more productive and less productive.

More productive: -s, -ed, -ing, -er, -est

Non-productive: -en, -ren, -ne, -m.

SOUND INTERCHANGE

is not productive in Modern English.

Cases are registered as exceptions. The change of a sound occurs within the roots of words and such a change is always morphologically relevant. (Foot - feet, take - took) Изменение в КОРНЕ слова.

SUPPLETION

Another non-productive means of wf. Extreme case of morphological formation.

The essence is that the surface image of a word becomes impossible to recognize. In practical grammar we call it Exceptions. They are extremely few in number.

ANALYTICAL FORMS

AF appear when a word goes beyond its boundaries.

Naturally being multy-component units, they may be characterized structurally and semantically composite. Discontinuous morpheme - прерывиста морфема (Бархударов).We should employ some regular component.

Auxuliary word (gram meaning) + Notional word (lex + gram meaning) = Inified lexical-and grammatical meaning: stem + discontinuous morpheme.

be work-ing = continuous aspect meaning

Be studi-ed = passive voice meaninghave play-ed = perfect STEM meaning

Схваченность грамматиечского значения обязательными компонентами аналитического образования.

Аналитическое словообразование появилось в англ.яз в 18 веке.

PARTS OF SPEECH

General survey WFs and separate words are grammatically grouped.

Parts of speech are lexico-grammatical classes of words that are characterized by general abstract grammatical meaning expressed in certain grammatical markers.

Such a prominent part of speech as the noun is always related to the idea of substance.

The verb always possesses the idea of a process. Process may be characterized as actions and states.

Adj and Adv are modifiers of substances or processes. Within certain classes of words grammatical features should be common to all the individual units in this class.

The idea concerning the behaviour of Ajd and Adv is a proof to the fact that PoS being grammatically independent are at the same time a system. Nouns in speech contact with verbs. They can be subjects o objects and should somehow contact with verbs. Ajd contact with nouns. Adv - with verbs. Such interdependency is so frequent!

A word "fast". Impossible to say if it is an Adv or Adj. "Test" - noun or verb? At the same time the connections are not that numerous and we can quite definitely establish that PoF are different qualitatively and quantitatively.

С т.з. лексикологии глаголов и сущ становится больше.

С т.з. грамматики: подл и сказ создают коммуникативную единицу.

The largest number of elements characterizes the noun and the verb: these two become the subject and the predicate of a sentence. Being such prominent elements, do they show any formal difference in grammar? Yes. Formally these parts of speech remain distinct because the noun is subject to inflexion while the verb is subject to conjugation. (склонение и спряжение).

PARTS OF SPEECH

The NOUN, the VERB, the ADJECTIVE, the ADVERB + PRONOUN, NUMERAL

Common features:

1) a distinct lexical meaning

2) independent syntactic functions in sentences

3) large in number (93 % of the lexicon)

• Functional

the PREPOSITION, the CONJUNCTION, the ARTICLE

Common features:

1) no distinct lexical meaning

2) no syntactic functions, but a connecting role

3) obligatory use

4) dependent use (with notional words)

5) limined number (~100)

A CLAUSE - грамматическая основа (подл+сказ)

Functional PoS express relations, they are meaningful. It's impossible to imagine a sentence which comprises functional parts of speech only.

• The Interjection

expresses the speaker's emotions towards some situations.

The forms of interjections are unpredictable. There are Interj that imitate the structure of phrase (My Lord!)

PRINCIPLES OF CLASSIFICATION

- Semantic

- Morphological (formal)- Syntactic- Combination (semantics, morphology and syntax)

- Functional

- Cognitive

FORMAL (morphological) PRINCIPLE (Henry Sweet)\

• Declinable:

- noun-word: noun

noun-pronoun

noun-numeral

infinitive gerund

- adj-word:

adj adj-pronoun

adj-number

participle

- verb:

finiteverb

verbals

Indeclinable - adverb

- preposition - conjunction

- interjection

O. Gespersen and the "Three Ranks Theory"

Extremely hot weather

Furiously barking dog

Rank1 Rank2 Rank3

1) Basic assumption: words can only display their morphological properties in syntactic structures.

2) There's no verb in the classification!

Recognition of importance of mutual relations between elements leads to the appearance of the notion of structural meaning.

Ch. Fries: The grammar of language is the system of the devices signaling structural meaning* (=approach formal + syntactical)

e.g. the man gave the boy some money

- who performed the action and how many people were involved

- when the action happened and

at whom it was directed

- communicative load

(statement, question, request...)

American descriptive linguistics: Ch. Fries

Frame A: The concert was good (always)

Frame B: The clerk remembered the fax (suddenly)

Frame C: The leam went there

Method: substitution of words resulting in NO change of structural meanings

Approach: formal + syntactical

WORDS

Classes (4) 1. food, lesson, family

2. is / seems, saw, ran

3. good

4. always, suddenly, there

• Groups (15)

A. the

B. may

C. not

D. very

E. and

F. at G. do H. there

I. when

J. after

K. well

L. yes, no

M. look

N. please

O. let's

Combination approach:- Semantic principle

- Morphological principle

morf. categories

derivational affixes

- Syntactic principle

syntactic function in the sentence

syntactic distribution

(V.V.Vinogradov)

САМОСТОЯТЕЛЬНО:* Функциональный подход к классификации слов по ЧР

(Е.И.Шёндельс, Н.И. Гулага, Ризель)

* Когнитивный подход к классификации слов по ЧР

(Е.С. Кубряка "Части речи с когнитивной т.з., глава 3)

THE NOUN AS A PART OF SPEECH

FEATURES OF THE NOUN:

Semantic: the meaning of "substance", possesses the meaning of substantivity:

a) the category of number and case

b) derivational affixes (freeDOM, friendSHIP...)

Syntactical: a) the functions of the subject, predicative, object, attribute, adverbial modifier; b) is modified by adj, numerals, nouns, articles, determiners, combines with prepositions (IN a loud voice)

THE CATEGORY OF NUMBER

Opposition. Plane of content

o ne / singularity more than one / plurality

z ero ending -s: [s], [z], [iz] - homonymy (sheep) - alteration (men)

Plane of expression.

NUMBER FORMS:

• Countable: 2 forms

- singular = one student

- plural = more than one students

• Uncountable => countable

memory a memory, memories

wine a wine, wines

COLLECTIVE NOUNS

1) FORM

the majority can take the plural suffix -s.

family-families

team - teams

Functions as a regular countable noun.

Meaning:- a single impersonal unit + singular verb

- a collection of separate people + plural verb

My family is big My family are big

2) NOUNS OF MULTITUDE

(No A!) singular noun + plural verbThe police HAVE arrived

BUT: Where IS the police?

THE MEANING OF NUMBER FORMS:

Main categorical distinction: oneness - more than oneness.

Singular - oneness / uniqueness: a girl talked loudly

- generalization: the lion lives in Africa

- uncountability: water is precious in this region - more-than-oneness: the girls talked loudly

- discrete entity: the cattle were driven home; these trousers are long

-measure*: two years is not enough to master a language

- differentiated plural**: The Customs are inside the airport building

THE CATEGORY OF CASE

Opposition

Plane of content

C OMMON GENITIVE

any syntactical function possessive, subjective, objective,

adverbial, destination, attributive

(attribute to a noun)

zero ending 's - s' - o: [s], [z], [iz]

Plane of expression

RESTRICTIONS ON THE USE OF THE GENITIVE CASEform the GC

• Used as a pre-posed attribute to another noun: children's books

But: Today's weather, Nobody's business, The work's popularity, The commitee's report

MEANING OF THE GENITIVE CASE:

his parents' home = his parents possess a home POSSESSIVE

success = the girls succeed (S+P) SUBJECTIVEarrested the spy (S+P+Obj) OBJECTIVE

childen's footwear = footwear for children DESTINATION

women's movement = feminist movement ATTRIBUTIVE

• Dickens's novels = Dickens is the author AUTHORSHIP

• the lion's share = the biggest share QUOTATIVE

• a minute's hesitation = hesitation for 1 moment ADVERBIAL

(METHOD: transformation analysis = search for "Kernel" sentences hidden in surface structure)

Мы не можем выделить все эти падежи как отдельные, т.к. у них нет своего плана выражения, мы имеем дело с одной и той же структурой.

On the basis of the formal approach we have to recognize that case in the English noun is regularly expressed by 2 forms covering all the possible relations between words in sentences which is the basic gram. meaning of the category of case.9.10

CASES IN THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE

* the common case (zero morpheme)* the genitive case ('s)

• The category of case is always referred to as the "Limited case" theory (2 cases)

The "universal three-case" theory (3 cases) - Henry Sweet Originally the English noun used to have 4 cases (nominative, genitive, objective and ..)

The case systems of nouns and personal pronouns compared:

• Nominative: a boy / he

  • Objective: a boy / him

3 cases, because english personal pronouns seem to retain 3 cases.

BUT: his is a possessive pronoun! Not a personal pronoun.

ARGUMENTS AGAINST 3 CASES THEORY

1) Speaking about grammatical category, we should bear in mind that they are to be unique with different parts of speech. Thus since nouns and pronouns are different parts of speech, there's no consistent reason why their case system should be identified. They have cases, but they are to be different.

This ides is largely supported by the fact, that semantically nouns and pronouns do not coincide. N express substances, P show indication.

2) In the N paradigm we do not obtain 3 different grammatical forms for the 3 cases while any grammatical category is always a combination of meaning and its formal support. Speaking about P we have to register the fact that the pronoun "HIS" clearly falls out of the system as it belongs to a different semantic group (possessive pronoun) and as such it is likely to show a difference in morphology.

• The four-case system: positional cases

This system was supported and described by M. Deutchbein and G. Gutme. We can identify cases regarding the position of a noun within a sentence. They insist that it is the place of a noun in a sentence that maks up for the absence of the morphological inflexion.

As a result they speak about 4 possibilities

Nominative: A boy goes to school

Genitive: The boy's story was convincing.

Dative: The teacher gave the boy a lecture

Accusative: The teacher punished the boy

The theory of analytical cases. Curme enlarges the list of cases and comes to the theory of analytical cases. Besides the position of the N, he suggests taking into consideration some stable combination of a N with the P.

Nominative: A boy goes to shool

Genitive: The boy's story was convincingDative: The teacher gave a lecture to the boy

Accusative: The teacher punished the boy

Instrumental: The boy wrote with a pen

Locative: The boy is in the school

Морфологическое понятие описано через синтаксический критерий.By way of criticism we can say they these theories can be recognized as theoretically inconsistent, because facts of morphology and syntax were ostensibly mixed. We can say that both positions in sentences and combinations with prepositions are arguments belonging to the sphere of syntax. Even if we choose to concentrate on meaning, we have to admit that meaning of case inflexions and meanings of prepositions do not coincide completely. Besides, if we choose to list all the existing combinations of N with P, the resulted number of cases can become almost infinite.

The theory of "possessive postposition" by Vorontsova.

There are no cases in the modern English language. 'S is not an affix, but a funxion word.

1) is not obligatory and can be substituted for an "of-phrase" (boy's leg, leg of a table)2) is not added to all nouns

3) is not added to plural ouns ending

4) can be added not only to nouns

5) can be used to form group possessives

(Peter and Kate's parents)

POSTPOSITION - послелог. 'S is compared to preposition and particles. Most grammarians arrive to conclusion that this theory is theoretically inconsistent.

Their arguments:1)'S is added to nouns in a majority of cases.

2) The relations (formal and semantic) within group genitives are so close, that those group genitives may be treated as compound nouns.

3) 'S can hardly be treated as a function word, because it can not be used freely. It is always a bound element of a certain form. It consists of 1 consonant only, that is assimilated in the flow of speech, which is a typical sign of a morpheme.

The article and other determiners

The A always precedes the english N.=>

1) The status of article (separate word or a morpheme?)

2) The number of articles

3) The function of the article

1) What is the article?

MORPHEME

- It has no lexical meaning

- It is a morphological marker of the noun (obligatory)

The article is never used without a noun.

WORD - can be substituted with its synonyms (the question - this question) - can be separated from the noun by other words: adj, participles and post-determiners ( a few well-grounded arguments)

- each article has several meanings and grammatical functions of its own.

Articles influence meaning of a sentence. (A / THE violet is a beautiful flower)

Historically grounded reasons:

- A used to be treated as adj: the historical origin of THE is the demonstrative pronoun THAT. The indefinite article: A = one in old english. But then they became different independent words.

- structural linguists recognized A as separate parts of speech. They spoke about A as belonging to one group of words - determiners.

FUNCTION WORD

As a result of classification of A by the Russia School fo Grammar we recognize A as a functional or structural word. (A = word).

- A are compulsory for structuring sentences

- their number is limited

- they form a closed class of words

- they form a closed in the sentence independently

• DETERMINER

The function of the A is similar to P and Numerals.

2) HOW MANY A ARE THERE IN ENGLISH?

If we take up 3 sentences using the noun Language: we introduce a sentence like - "Language is means of communication" (abstract notion),

- "Everyone knows a foreign language"(one object/any object belonging to the class of objects), -"He speaks English; do you know the language?" (notion is unique in the conversation)

Classical school: 2 articles - Definite and Indefinite.(Words cannot be represented by zero)

A as a Morpheme: a new element was introduced - Zero Article.

Zero article = zero morpheme.

Meaningful absence of the article is not to be mixed with the omission of the article which a specific stylistic device and is often used to save space in newspapers, telegrammes and so on.

Нулевая морфема - нулевой экспонент грамматической категории. (10: 0 - незаполненность разряда единиц)

3) MEANINGS OF THE ARTICLE

The number of meanings varies with different grammarians.

BarhudaROV: though for practical purposes we speak about meanings of A, we have to agree that these meanings are extremely abstract and can only be mentioned and specified when a concrete A combines with a concrete N in a particular sentence.

THE:

- individualizing (particularizing)

- generic

A/AN:

- nominating- generic- numericZERO:

- nominating

Функция - цель употребления единицы

Several functions of the eng A, understanding functions as purposes:

• Morphological function

indicates substantivity: фиксировать субстантивность последующего слова.

• Syntactical

- separates a noun phrase

делимитация синтаксических компонентов

- connects sentences

связь предложений (we saw a man; the man was approaching us)

• Semantic

Relates a given utterance to a given speech situation (actualization)

Semantically A actualize utterances in the sense that A help us focus on one specific aspect of the notion denoted by the N that is preceded by this A. Когда слово помещается в конкретное предложение и перестает быть абстрактной единице й = > мы способны выделить аспекты его значения.

(см материал 2 семестра)16.10

CONTROVERSIAL ISSUES IN PATS-OF-SPEECH CLASSIFICATION

* The pronoun

the numeral

the adjective

the adverb

*Words of category

*The article

*The interjection

*Modal words, Particles, Words of No part of speech

MAIN QUESTIONS:

1) Is it a part of speech?

2) Is it a notional or s structural PS?

=>

Basic issues to consider:

• Meaning Function

1) Is the pronoun a part of speech?

In the middle of XX century the question remained.Only in the 50s grammarians decided to list The Pronoun a part of speech.

Problem: the very term P is quite conspicuous.

• NO, P is merely a noun-substitute.

(a word that substitutes for a noun)

The viewpoint of the classical school is criticized by O. Jespersen for primitivism.

Местоимения - слова, которые наиболее поздно входят в компетенцию в ребенка (только к 5 годам)

Содержательная несостоятельность М по отношению к сущ.

NO:

* Pronouns belong to nouns

- I, we, you, he, it: He is kind

-Somebody, anything, nothing: Nobody is at home

* P belonf to Adj

- My, their, her: Her daughter

- Some, any: Some milk

H. Sweet, Н.В. Щерба

(syntactic approach)

P =/= N - doesnt name objects - shows difference in morphology and syntactic combinability

1) personal, possessive and rflexive P have person distinctions

2) personal P have a case system that is different from N case system

3) some P expose stable genter distinctions (in the 3rd person sg personal, possessive and reflexive P distinguish between the masculine gender, the feminine gender and the so-called non-personal gender. Thus we can speak about HE, HIS, HIM, HIMSELF, SHE, HER, HERSELF, IT, ITS, ITSELF)

4) Relative and Interrogative P distnguish between the personal and non-personal genders. Thus, for the personal gender we have WHO, WHOM & WHOSE, for the non-personal gender we have WHAT & WHICH.

We can say that P definitely show a specific morphology.Speaking about semantics of the P: P dont name objects or qualities; they point to objects, persons, notions in a specific speech situation.

Analyzing the semantics of the P, grammarians conclude that the P meanins is INDICATION. It is absolutely unique and typical of P only and not shared with categorial meanings of nouns and adj.

• P =/= Adj

- doesnt name properties

- shows difference in morphology