The participle

The participle combines verbal features and adjectival/adverbial features.

Adjectival/adverbial characteristics:	Verbal characteristics:
Functions of: attribute There was a smile playing on her lips. (NO PREPOSITION!!!) She looked at the words written on the cover.	participle I of a transitive verb can take a direct object: Opening the door, he went out.
adverbial modifier Having eaten his dinner, he went for a stroll. When left to herself, she spent her days indoors.	participle I and participle II can be modified by an adverb: Really insulted, he left the room. Leaving the room hurriedly, he forgot to take his umbrella.
	participle I has the category of perfect, participle I of transitive verbs the categories of perfect and voice

The participial phrase is a participle with elements dependent on it.

The categories of participle I

	Active	Passive	Example
Non-perfect	writing going	being written	When reading the book, I couldn’t help laughing. When reading the book, one cannot help laughing. When reading the book, you will most certainly laugh.
Perfect	having written having gone	having been written	They are/were old friends, having been at school together.

1. The non-perfect forms denote actions simultaneous to the action expressed by the finite verb.

2. The perfect forms denote actions prior to the action expressed by the finite verb.

Notes:

1. Sometimes non-perfect participle I denotes an action referring to no particular time:

• They saw the road leading to London.

2. A prior action can be expressed not only by perfect participle I. With verbs of sense perception and motion (to come, to look, to turn, to seize, to grasp, to enter, to put, to put on, to take, to take off etc.) non-perfect participle I is used to express priority, esp. immediate priority:

• Entering his room, he went up to the table.

3. Participle II has no categories of voice or perfect. It expresses both prior and simultaneous actions, or actions referring to no particular time:

• He is a man hated by everyone.

The functions of participle I in the sentence:

1. attribute (non-perfect, no preposition):

There was a smile playing on her lips.

He turned to the frowning girl.

He looked at the table being laid.

2. Adverbial modifier of:

1. time:

Having reached her house, she ran to her room.

CONJUNCTIONS: when, while (for simultaneous actions):

While waiting for her to come, he fell asleep.

2. cause/reason:

Having known him for a long time, I understood why he was doing it.

3. manner:

He came in limping.

4. attendant circumstances:

He came in carrying a bag.

5. comparison:

CONJUNCTIONS: as if, as though

It was said as if thinking aloud.

6. condition:

Being there, she would have never allowed it.

7. concession:

CONJUNCTIONS: though, although

Though finding it strange, he said nothing.

3. predicative (non-perfect active):

The story is amusing.

He remained sitting.

The film seems intriguing.

It sounds frightening.

It looks frightening.

4. parenthesis:

Strictly speaking,

Legally speaking,

Frankly speaking,

Generally speaking,

Putting it mildly,

Judging by… (e.g., “what you say”)

Taking … into account,

Taking … into consideration,