Instruments:
Kumuz
Sebezgha
Chur
Kyaq
Uz Kumuz
Surnai
The Spiritual Culture of Turks in the 6-12th centuries: writing system, literature and science. Mahmud Kashgari, Yusuf Balasaghun, Ibn Sina, Firdawsi and others.
Writing. In the 6 century the Turks for state needs used Sogdian’s writting. In the 7 th century own ancient Turkic writing was created based on it. It consisted of 37 marks a very simple style, adapted for writing not only on paper, but also on stone, wood and metal. This script was used by the ancient Turks, Kyrgyz, Uighur, Turgish, Karluk. In Kyrgyzstan, the monuments of ancient Turkic writing had been found near the town of Talas, Issyk-Kul, the Alai. In the 10-11 centuries with the adoption of Islam by Karakhanids, sogdian’s ancient writing was replaced by the Arabic script. Monuments of Arabic writing of that age are found in all regions of Kyrgyzstan.
Science and literature. In the 10-12 centuries, Kyrgyzstan was the north-eastern center of Muslim culture and science. In cities Balasagun, Uzgende, Osh and Kashgar profound knowledge in mathematics, astronomy, medicine, and literature could be obtained. Among the prominent men of science people from the Turkic environment took prominent place. Al-Farabi (9-10 century) opened the philosophy of ancient Greek scholars for the Muslim world. In his writings about the man, the state ,and society, he rose up to the proclamation of the ideals of universal humanity, the uniqueness of each person regardless of its race, nationality or religion. Significant role in the development of philosophical thought of the medieval Turkic peoples, also the Kyrgyz ,played a major thinkers and eminent scientists of 11 century Mahmud Kashgar and Zhusup Balasagyn. Dictionary of Mahmud Kashgar “Dian luga tat-Türk” (Dictionary of Turkic dialects) is an encyclopedia of medieval life of the Turkic peoples. It serves as an important source for studying the history of early medieval Turkic peoples living in Middle and Central Asia. Thanks to him we now obtain a representation of material culture, tribal division, astronomy, names, characters, etc. Mahmud Kashgari’s Circular world map and information about the social structure of society, the branches of economic life, the cultural success of the Turks are presenting the great interest. Works of Zhusup Balasagyn indicate his thorough knowledge in astronomy, mathematics, medicine, literature, philosophy, history and linguistics (Turkic, Arabic, Farsi). Poem “Kutadgu Bilik”(Beneficial Knowledge) is a spiritual, moral and ethical encyclopedia, which reflects the history, culture, religious views of society of that era.
Verbal creation
Kyrgyz continued to improve the epic "Manas", created a trilogy - "Manas", "Seytek", "Semetei. Also, small epics - "Kojo jash", "Air Toshtuk", "Olzhobayikishimzhan", "Air Tabyldy", "Zhang Mirza, etc were created. They continued to improve proverbs and sayings. During that time well-known manaschy (zhomokchu) - Balyng Ooz, Keldebek, Chongbash, Nazar, Kalmyrza, Tynybekov, Togolok Moldova, etc. During Traditional events ( toi,ash) they played national games - ulaktakysh (kozlodranie) kiz kuymak, tyyyngbey (picking up of coins from the ground), arkantarkysh, alchiks, toptash.
Ibn Sina(980 - 1037) was a polymath of Persian origin and the foremost physician and philosopher of his time.[11] He was also an astronomer, chemist, geologist, Hafiz, Islamic psychologist, Islamic scholar, Islamic theologian, logician, paleontologist, mathematician, Maktab teacher, physicist, poet, and scientist
Ibn Sīnā studied medicine under a physician named Koushyar. He wrote almost 450 treatises on a wide range of subjects, of which around 240 have survived. In particular, 150 of his surviving treatises concentrate on philosophy and 40 of them concentrate on medicine].His most famous works are The Book of Healing, a vast philosophical and scientific encyclopaedia, and The Canon of Medicine,[14] which was a standard medical text at many medieval universities.
Firdawsi (940–1020) is a highly revered Persian poet. He was the author of the Shāhnāmeh( The Great Book), the national epic of Persian people and of the Iranian World. The Persians regard Ferdowsi as the greatest of their poets. For nearly a thousand years they have continued to read and to listen to recitations from his masterwork, the Shah-nameh, in which the Persian national epic found its final and enduring form. Though written about 1,000 years ago, this work is as intelligible to the average, modern Iranian as the King James version of the Bible is to a modern English-speaker. The language, based as the poem is on a Dari original, is pure Persian with only the slightest admixture of Arabic.[5]
The Yenisei Kyrgyz Kaganate and the Great Kyrgyz Statehood in the 7-13th centuries.
The period of the Great Kyrgyz Empire is very important from a historical point of view. It became the time the Kyrgyz could establish their state on the whole territory of Central Asia and create the stable conditions for the rise and formation of the Kyrgyz ethnic group. The Yenisei state laid the foundation on which the modern Kyrgyz ethnic group was developed. The formation of the Kyrgyz state and ethnology can be splitted into 4 stages:
Ancient Kyrgyz State
Yenisei Kyrgyz
Great Kyrgyz Empire
Ethnogenesis of the Kyrgyz people
And the history of Kyrgyz Kaganate of 7-10 centuries covers Yenisei Kyrgyz period and Great Kyrgyz Empire period.
Yenisei Kyrgyz
Within the first six centuries AD there is no record of the Kyrgyz in Chinese sources, so their destiny within this period is unknown. Beginning from the 6th century, the information about the Kyrgyz can be received not only from Chinese but also from Greek, Arab, Persian, Turk, Uighur, Sogdian historical documents. Besides, in the 7th century the Kyrgyz developed their own Runic script.
In the 7th century the Kyrgyz established the Kyrgyz Khaganate on the Yenisei River. During this time, the state was ruled by Barsbek with the official title ajo.
The Turks created the Second Easter Khaganate, defeated their enemies and became the new rulers of the Steppe.
In the early 8 century the Yenisei Kyrgyz decided to send their missions to China and the Turgesh state, who also fought against Turks, in order to establish the anti-Turkic coalition.
However, Turks did not wait until their enemies attack them and decided to attack first. In winter 710 Turks attacked Yenisei Kyrgyzs. They could cross the Sayan Mountains and defeated the Kyrgyz army. The attack was so sudden that most of the Kyrgyz army was crashed. Barsbek with the remaining forces attempted to resist but was killed. Then Turks defeated Turgesh and Chinese one by one. As a result, Yenisei Kyrgyz did not participate in Central Asian military campaigns for more than 40 years.
Great Kyrgyz Empire
The first scholar who put the term “Great Kyrgyz Empire” into wide use was Barthold. He did so referring to the period of the 9-10th centuries when the Yenisei Kyrgyz could built up the Kyrgyz state, which at the peak of its power stretched from the Irtysh River in the west to the Big Hingan range in the east, from the Angara and Selenga Rivers in the north to the Gobi Desert in the south.
In the 8th century the new hegemon of Central Asia was the Uighurs who in the coalition with Karluks and Basmyls could defeat the Eastern Turkic Khaganate. In the early 9 century the Uighur Khanate lost its former might because of permanent internal strives. In 820 the Kyrgyz ajo made use of the situation and challenged the Uighurs announcing himself the Khagan.
In 840 after 20 years of struggling they crushed the Uighur Khanate. Uighurs fled to Eastern Turkestan chased by Kyrgyzs. Kyrgyzs reached the Tienshan Mountains and Semirechye, initiated successful military campaigns to Eastern Mongolia and Jungaria beyond the Baykal Lake and established the Great Kyrgyz Empire on the newly conquered territories. During the era of the Kyrgyz Empire its population increased. It included a great number of various non-Kyrgyz tribes, who adopted the name Kyrgyz. That is, the name Kyrgyz became not of ethnic but of political meaning.
However, the era of their empire didn’t last long. In the first quarter of the 10th century the majority of the Kyrgyz returned to Yenisei. At the same time, a number of small Kyrgyz kingdoms emerged on the territory of former Kyrgyz Empire. One of them appeared in Altai. Within a few centuries its population underwent great ethnic changes. Following the assimilation of the Kyrgyz with the local population, their appearance, language and culture had changed. At the same time, they had lost many achievements of their Yenisei ancestors, including Runic script. In the 13th century pressed by Mongols, Kyrgyzs of Altai and Jungaria moved to Central Tienshan. There they assimilated the local tribes and gave rise to the modern Kyrgyz ethnie.
Political system. The head of the Yenisei state was ajo, later khagan. The second person in the state was buiruk – advisor. The third level was occupied by boyla who announced decisions and yargan who put them into effect. The khagan appointed tutuks, tarkans, biys and tyutyuns to rule in regions and tribes.
In the periods of Kyrgyz Kaganate basis of the future administrative structure was set up. According to the Chinese sources, the Kyrgyz people were ruled by Ajo. Officials of the Kyrgyz Kaganat were divided into 6 categories- corresponding as 6 ministries, that was basis of governing the country in Tan China. There were the ministries of ceremonial, justice, the finance, the staff, military and the ministry of public works.
Economy. Kyrgyz were engaged in cattle breeding (horses, camels, cows and sheep), agriculture (wheat, millet, oats, artificial irrigation), metallurgy (daggers, hatchets, spears, arrows, harness), hunting (deer, goats, fur-bearing animals, goose, ducks), and fishing. Trade developed. A branch of the Great Silk Road named the Kyrgyz Way led to the Yenisei River from Turfan in Eastern Turkestan. There merchants purchased horses, furs, musk (a strong-smelling glandular secretion of the male musk deer, used in perfumery), mammoth tusk and bones, wood, silver kitchenware). The main currency was squirrel fur (in Kyrgyz tyyinchichkan), from where the word tyyin was derived. Exploration of mining, development of metallurgy and handicraft.
Religion – Tengri and Umai. They cremated their deceased, collected bones and after a year buried them.
Written language – Runic script spread in the 5 century among the Yenisei Kyrgyz and was in use till 12 century. Wrote on stone, wood, metal. Read from the right to the left. More than 120 monuments written by the ancient Kyrgyz script have been discovered on the Yenisei River and in Tuva city.
The Mongols in the History of Central Asia in the 13-14th centuries.
Mongol Empire
Chaghatay Ulus
Qaydu State
The 13th century marked the beginning of the new era in the development of such regions as China, Central Asia and Russia. Three different areas were greatly affected by the disastrous invasion and rule of the Mongols.
Mongol Empire
In the 10th century Mongolia was the country of nomads, grouped into tribes. The country was more Turkic that Mongolian, especially its western and central parts. However, the eastern part from the Khingan Mountains was occupied by Mongolian-speaking tribes. They called themselves Tatars and Mongols. That was the reason why the Mongols were often called by Chinese and other conquered people as Tatars or Tatars-Mongols. On the other hand, Tatars usually moved in the forefront of the Mongolian army. In the early 12th century the tribal confederation of Tatars and Mongols disintegrated because of some controversies.
The 1162 (1167) became the year when the leader of Mongols have got a son Temujin. Later he was killed by Tatars and Temujin had to go through many obstacles and hardships since the early childhood to survive before he finally became the ruler of Mongols.
In 1206, during the all-Mongolian kurultai he was announced Genghis Khan (Khan-Ocean) by tribal leaders. He could create an absolutely loyal, disciplined and strong army, which could have defeated all neighboring peoples. After he subordinated all Mongolian tribes, he decided to launch campaigns beyond Mongolia.
Three campaigns were initiated; the first to the north against the Yenisei Kyrgyz, the second to the southwest against Tanguts, and to the southeast against the Chin dynasty established by Jurchen dynasty ruled in northern China.
Genghiz khan was a flexible and pragmatic politician. In case of a peaceful surrender he kept an enemy a throne, by this escaping a massacre. Resistance meant extermination and devastation.
In 1207, the Yenisei Kyrgyzs submitted themselves to Genghiz Khan. But in 1218 they rebelled against Mongols. Genghiz Khan sent his eldest son Juchi to subdue the rebels.
The Tanguts, a people of Tibeto-Burman origin also submitted to Genghis Khan in 1209 but later they rebelled and paid for this with extinction.
In 1215 Beijin fell to the Mongols. However, after the conquest of Beijin, the Mongols turned their attention to the west – the Central Asian region.
During that period, Central Asia was under the rule of Kuchlug, the ruler of Nayman tribe. He conquered Qarakhitays who subordinated the Qarakhanids in 12th century. In 1218, the Mongols easily defeated Naymans with the help of local dynasties who hated them for being intolerant and imposing on them their religion Buddhism. Therefore, local people met Mongols as liberators. After Genghis Khan conquered Semirechye and Tienshan, he went to the west. All cities of the Chui and Talas valleys were destroyed. The urban culture was replaced by nomadic. As soon as he conquered all of Central Asia by 1223, Genghis Khan returned to Mongolia. Genghis Khan died in 1227.
Genghis Khan had four sons from his main wife: Juchi, Chaghatay, Ugedey and Toluy. They all helped him in conquests (Juchi against Yenisei Kyrgyzs, Chaghatay and Ugedey against Khorezmian Shakh in Urgench, Toluy in Marv). He divided all conquered territories among all of them according to nomadic tradition: Juchi, the eldest son, received the Kipchak steppe (because of his soon death, it was divided among his sons: Ordu – White Horde from Irtysh river to Ural River, Batu – Golden Horde on Volga River, Sheybani – Blue Horde from Tyumen to Aral), Chaghatay, the second son, received Central Asia (Transoxania, Semirechye, Western Sinkiang), Ugedey, the third son, received Central Siberia and Eastern Singkiang, and Toluy, the youngest, received the home territory of Mongolia with the capital - Karakorum. But this did not mean that he also received the title Kagan (Great Khan). Ugedey was designated as Genghis Khan successor.
After Ugedey became the Kagan in 1230, the second wave of military campaigns was initiated, that time against China (Chin dynasty) and Russia. Only in 1238-1240 Batu could conquer Russia and Ukraine and receive his portion of lands where he established the Golden Horde. The Mongol conquest meant the end of Kievan Russia and the rise of Moscow.
After the death of Ugedey and Chaghatay and later the son of Ugedey, Guyuk, the son of Toluy, Mongke, was proclaimed the Kagan. Under Mongke the third final wave of conquests were launched – the conquest of Iran and Iraq started by Genghis Khan. Hulagu conquered both as well as Syria but was stopped by Mamluks of Egypt. The myth of the Mongol army as invincible was crashed. On the conquered territory of Iran and Iraq he established the new dynasty of Ilkhans (il - a khan subordinate to the main khan).
A conquest of China was continued by Qubilay, another son of Toluy, who became the new Kagan. He moved his capital to Beijin and in 1271 established a new Chinese dynasty – Yuan. He became very interested in Buddhism.
Chaghatay Ulus
Chaghatay received the lands of Transoxania, Semirechye and Western Sinkiang. The capital of the ulus became Almaliq. With the death of Chaghatay a new period in the history of Chaghatay Ulus started – the period of Chaghatayid dynasty. Most of Chagatayids lived in steppes retaining their nomadic life style. Their religion was paganism. The political and moral norms remained the Yasa – the traditional Mongol code of behavior formulated under Chenghis Khan. The Chaghatayids did not interfere with shariat – Islamic law of the Muslim population of the ulus. They were also tolerant or indifferent towards other religions, for example Christianity.
Most of settled territories were occupied by Muslims (Transoxania) whose governors enjoyed considerable autonomy and peace. They became very prosperous. However, that prosperity began to decrease during the time of Qubilay.
About a century after the Mongol invasion, some Chaghatayid khans began to convert to Islam. Islam played a fundamental role in the development of local identity during the Mongol rule thanks to the contribution of Sufi brotherhoods: Kubrawiya and Yasawiya.
Qaydu State
The main rival of Qubilay was Qaydu, a ruler of new established Qaydu State. In 1269, Qaydu, a grandson of Ugedey, could manage to hold a kurultay, where the chieftains of Chaghatay and Ugedey uluses recognized him as Kagan. The new state became independent of the Mongolian State with the center in Karakorum. It stretched from Altai to Amu Darya and included the territories of present-day Kyrgyzstan and Eastern Turkestan. The capital was Tarsakent city (near present-day Bishkek).
Qaydu initiated several military campaigns to Karakorum but were unsuccessful. After the final defeat he died in 1303.
Qaydu was a good and just ruler. He understood that the stability of the state stemmed from its economic development. He undertook a number of measures to improve economy, development of trade and crafts. He also carried out a money reform, introducing golden and silver coins. He provided a strict tax control. It was banned to use agricultural lands as pastures for cattle. Violators were punished.
Qaydu made numerous attempts to help Altai and Yenisei Kyrgyzs rebelling against Mongolian rule. In 1293, he also sent his army but was defeated by Qubilay. Qubilay destroyed the Yenisei Kyrgyz state. However, Qaydu could help Kyrgyzs living in Altai and helped them by moving from Altai to Tienshan. In the 14th century Qaydu territory was divided between two states: Mavarannahr and Mogholistan.
The Timurids in the History of Central Asia and Kyrgyzstan in the 14-16th centuries and their Conquest of Mogholistan.
Amir Timur (Timur, Tamerlane) was born in 1336, Kesh city, originated from Barlas tribe. Tamerlane was the founder of Timurids dynasty. “Amir”denominated his title as a “prince”, also he was called “Gurgan” – son-in-law. His wife was a Ghengizid princess, and with this marriage Tamerlane claimed his right for ruling. At that time, no rulers were considered “lawful”, unless they somehow belonged to a Genghisid dynasty. Amir Timur is remembered as a vicious conqueror, who razed ancient cities to the ground and put entire populations to the sword. Timur’s conquests occupied a vast territory from the Caspian Sea to Northern India. His major conquests included Mawerannahr in 1370, Golden Horde in 1395, Delhi in 1398, and the Ottoman Empire in 1402. He also had ambitious plans to conquer China, however, his last campaign ended with his death in 1405. At the same time, during his life, Amir Timur was one of the few able to unite and control powerful centralized state. Samarkand became political and administrative center of new state, which was famous as “State of Tamerlane”. Timur had cared about prosperity of his native town Transoxiana and improvement of his capital – Samarkand. From all of his conquered lands he drove the best masters, architects, jewelers, builders, architects to equip Samarkand. He was the prominent military leader, the founder of the major power. Under his ruling, Central Asia entered its renaissance period.
He had 4 sons, most well-known was Shahrukh. Timurid dynasty successors, as well as Timur himself, were great patrons of the arts, literature, and architecture. Many significant achievements were made by Shahrukh - a son of Timur, Khorasan (capital – Herat), Ulugh Bek - a grandson (Mawarannahr), a prominent scholar and astronomer (built madrasas, mosques, and his famous observatory), Baysunur - a grandson, Khorasan, a patron of arts (under him Persian and Turkic poetry developed), Babur (author of “encyclopedic” diary Baburname) – last of Timurids, Fergana, the founder of the Great Moghul Empire in India (1526). The rule of Timur and his followers – Shahruh, Ulug bek, and Babur was marked by increase of productive capacities; development of irrigation section, art, handicraft, trade; blossoming of literature and science in ancient Samarkand and Transoxania.
Timurids were also very religious people. They actively professed Islam. One of the descendants of the Timurid dynasty Baha al-Din Naqshband, who was born in Bukhara in 1318, Persian in origin, founded Naqshbandi Sufi Order. He institutionalized Sufism, mostly the success of spreading Sufism was due to its principles. Sufi can live the life of an ordinary person and perform a silent prayer - zikr, individually. It became the most popular Sufi order in Central Asia.
tiimurid period was glorious for the whole Central Asia. The contribution of Timurids to CA’s development was incredible. Timur’s successors were less interested in conquests but rather encouraged the development of art and science.
As a result of Tamerlan’s invasions to Mogolistan state the mogol tribes like: “Bulgachi”, “Duglat”, “Kangyly” and others lost their economic power for continuing of conquered campaigns against Maverannakhr. Most of Mogol tribes migrated to Altai.
Kyrgyz tribe nomadized in the eastern part of Mogolistan state, Altai and Jungaria gradually migrated to Issyk-Kul Lake and Central Tian-Shan and in 1480s in the present northern Kyrgyzstan organized a new tribal union called Kyrgyz. Akhmed was a kagan of Kyrgyz union. He tried to stop invasion of Kalmak tribes as well as rebutted aggression of Uzbek khan Sheibani.
In the end of the 15th and the beginning of the 16th century there was a decay of the state of Tamerlane in Middle Asia and Mogolistan in Semirech’e and Tien-Shan.
In 1512 the state headed by Babur was collapsed by nomadic Uzbek tribes. Zakhir ad-din Mukhammed Babur (1483-1530) was a descendant of Timur in the fifth generation. He received Ferghana when he was twelve. He was a poet, philosopher, and warrior. He wrote his Babur-name and described events held in Central Asia during 1493-1529.
In 1510 he moved to Western India and there organized an empire of Great Mogols (1526-1858).
Kyrgyz tribes in Semirech’e and Tien-Shan were a part of Mogolistan state. In the beginning of the 16 century in Mogolistan there was fighting between chiefs of different mogol and Turkic tribes. Among them stood Kyrgyz tribes, who tried to reach independent condition from Mongol kings. Their movement was headed by Mukhammed-Kyrgyz also called Tagai-bii. He had united the right and left Kyrgyz tribes. Consolidation of Kyrgyz tribes caused the development of ethic identity of the Kyrgyz people in that time. His General Headquarters located in Barskoon, South shore of the Issyk-Kul Lake. Mukhammed-Kyrgyz came to agreement with Kazakh sultans against Uzbek and Mogol invasions. But at the same time The Kyrgyz troops took part in campaigns of Mogol and Kazakh army against each other and Uzbek tribes.
The Ethnogenesis of the Kyrgyz People in the 15-16th centuries and the formation of Kyrgyzs on the present territory of Kyrgyzstan.
The ethno genesis of the Kyrgyz people is a very complicated and disputable issue. One of the reasons is that historical sources fixed the existence of two ethnic communities under the name Kyrgyz. The first community, recorded in the earlier historical period, was found in Southern Siberia on the Yenisei River till 13th century, and the second one, of the later period, since 15th-16th century, populated the eastern part of Central Asia, the Tien Shan and Pamir-Alai Mountains. Since the Kyrgyz had no written literature of their own until the late 19th century and didn’t play a significant political role after the establishment of the Great Kyrgyz Empire in the 9-10th centuries, their ethnic history is not always discernible and even known.
There was no unanimous opinion regarding the ethno genesis of the Kyrgyz in the historiography of Soviet and post-Soviet years. Three main theories took place:
The modern Kyrgyz ethnic group migrated from the Yenisei River to Tienshan. Miller first mentioned that theory. However, Bernshtam considered that migration not a one-stage but many-staged process;
The modern Kyrgyz ethnic group was formed on the basis of indigenous tribes who inhabited the Tienshan territory since the ancient time. This view was supported by Valikhanov, Bichurin, Aristov;
The modern Kyrgyz ethnic group was developed as a result of two main elements: the local and the alien (Yenisei Kyrgyz).
That is, in the 15th - early 16th centuries the Kyrgyz ethnic group was formed in the Tienshan Mountains. The Kyrgyz didn’t have their own state. A basic form of political organization was a tribal confederation, built around family. In the 16th century all Kyrgyz tribes was divided into two wings on (right) and sol (left). Later on, the group of tribes was separated from the right wing and formed an independent group ichkilik (middle).
The right wing, the most numerous, included sarybagysh, bugu, sayak, solto, jediger, tynynseit, mongoldor, bagysh, baaryn, basyz, cherik, joru, boru, bargy, karabagysh and other tribes and inhabited Northern Kyrgyzstan. Kushchu, saru, munduz, jetagen, kytai, chonbagysh, basyg, toboi of the left wing occupy the Talas valley. Ichkilik, represented by kypchak, naiman, teyit, kesek, jookesek, kagdy, boston, noigut, doolos, avat, populates the south of Kyrgyzstan.
There are many legends about the origin of the name Kyrgyz. Kyrk + Kyz = 40 girls, Kyrk + Yz = 40 tribes, Kyryg + Yz = Red People, and others.
Ideological factors played a great role in the consolidation of Kyrgyz tribes: the adoption of Islam by Tienshan Kyrgyzs and the Manas Kyrgyz epic that finally was formed in Tienshan.
The Relationships of the Kyrgyz with the Koqand Khanate in the 18-19th centuries. The Rebellion of 1873-1876 against Kokand Khanate.
Khoqand Khanate
In 1710 a chieftain of one of the tribes in the central part of the Fergana Valley, Shahrukh Biy from Ming tribe with the support of other tribal chieftains, was announced the ruler of the new state. He established Ming dynasty. The name of the dynasty has nothing in common with the Ming dynasty of China. It is a Turkic word meaning a “thousand”. Some sources consider the founder of the state as belonging to one of Uzbek tribes, while others regard him as a descendant of Babur and Timurids.
The capital of the new state was Khoqand, a city that was grown up of a fortified palace. The new capital was located in the western part of the state, different from the former capital Andijan, for example, partly because it was less exposed to raids of nomadic Kyrgyzs and Kalmyks. On the other hand, the capital was close to another Khanate of Bukhara.
The main territory of the Khoqand Khanate was the Fergana Valley. However, within almost two centuries the territory of the khanate was expanded to Semirechye in the north and Pamir Mountains in the south.
The history of the Khoqand state can be divided into three main stages:
1. The growth of Khoqand state – 1709-1800, the period when the political- administrative system and socio-economic relations within the state were established. The state acquired its definite structure under the rule of Irdana Biy (the title biy originated from the Turkic beg). Under his reign the Khoqand Khanate became independent from the Bukhara state.
2. The prosperity of Khoqand state – 1800-1840, the period of the state highest development and expansion of its territory. Khoqand competed with Bukhara for primacy in Central Asia. Khokand rulers also assumed the title of khan instead of biy. During the rule of Madali Khan the khanate reached its greatest extent and power. Its territory stretched from the Kipchak steppe with Turkestan, Tashkent, Chui and Ili valleys to the Pamir Mountains and southern Kyrgyzstan.
The khanate also underwent the flourishing of art and literature, the rise in agricultural production through the construction of the irrigation system. Silk and cotton became increasingly important, especially cotton that was exported to Russia. Urban architecture, both religious and civic, flourished. The great mosque of Khoqand, Madrasa-i Jami (a mosque and a school), Hakim Ayin and Sultan Murad Bey madrasas, Urda royal palace were built. Poetry in the Turkic language (Nadira, the mother of Madali Khan) flourished.
3 The decline of the Khoqand state – 1840-1876, the period of social contradictions, internal strives, the weakening of the state system, the political crisis, popular uprisings and finally the liquidation of the state by the Russians. During this period the tensions between the settled population (Sarts who spoke Turkic and Tajiks who spoke Persian) and Kipchak and Kyrgyz nomads took place. Numerous rebellions took place in this period, particularly those of Kyrgyzs. The last ruler, Khudayar Khan, was forced to seek a refuge at the Russian mission as a result of 1873 rebellion led by Ishaq Hasan. In 1876, Russians occupied the whole territory of khanate and annexed it, liquidating the khanate and establishing the new province of Turkestan.
Khoqand Khanate and Kyrgyz
In the first half of the 19th century southern Kyrgyzstan was annexed by the Khoqand Khanate. The conquest of northern Kyrgyzstan started in 1820s. In 1825, after the invasion of the Chui Valley, Bishkek fortress was built. The purpose of the fortress was military – to garrison Khoqandi troops, and secondly – economical, to control trade routes between Central Asia and Russia. Later on Issyk-Kul and Naryn Kyrgyzs were conquered. Many other fortified settlements were established by Khoqands on the territory of Kyrgyzstan – Tokmak, Ak Suu, Chaldavar, Kara Balta, Merke, At Bashi, Kurtka, Toguz Toro, Kochkor, Jumgal, Karakol, Barskon and others. The factor that facilitated the conquest of Kyrgyz tribes were their intertribal fights, so that some chieftains helped Khoqandis in their expansion.
Economic situation
By the mid 19 century the population of Kyrgyzs was more than 800 thousand people. While the rule of Khokand Khanate was stable and firm enough in the south of Kyrgyzstan, in the north it was more formal ad superficial.
The annexation of Kyrgyzs by the Khoqand Khanate brought new forms of land ownership: ashlaq - state ownership, mulq – private ownership, waqf – Mulsim ownership (medreses and mosques). However, traditional for Kyrgyzs forms of land ownership also remained – tribal ownership of land and livestock that was controlled by Kyrgyz bays and manaps.
Various taxes were imposed on Kyrgyzs: zeket – tax on livestock, tunduk zeket – tax on a yurt (one sheep), kharaj – tax on land (1/10 of harvest), military tax – 3 sheep or 1 golden coin. Later on many more other taxes were imposed. During the reign of Khudayar Khan there were more than 20 taxes.
The Relationships of the Kyrgyz with the Russian Empire in the 18-19th centuries and the Russian Colonization of the Kyrgyz.
The relationships formed between Kyrgyzs and the Russian Empire in the end of 18 – mid 19th centuries became necessary precondition for further Colonization. Therefore, it’s important to consider thoroughly this period of history of Kyrgyzstan.
During the second part of XVIII century Kyrgyz society was going through complex events. Kyrgyz society had not still formed united single statehood. Not only were they having internecine wars, but were under the rule of several states as well. For instance, Southern tribes (adygine, munduz, basyz, kushchu, saruu, bagysh, jediger, sayak and others) with Uzbek, Kypchak, Tadjik were actively participating in formation of Koqand khanate, which was founded in 1709. Afterwards, just as people of Ferghana valley, Pamir, mountainous Badahshan, Orto-Tube, Djizaka and Hodjent, Kyrgyzs had also become the part of Koqand khanate.
The Northern Kyrgyzstan at this period of history was under the rule of several manaps. Manaps are tribal leaders. Due to Ablai-Han’s invasion during 1775-1776 to Talas, Chui and Issyk-Kul people of Northern Kyrgyzstan were under vassalage (вассальная зависимость). However, this period when Kyrgyz people were under double oppression (manaps and Ablai-Han) had ended in 1781, when Ablai-Han died. In 1780-1830 Kyrgyzs were living in “independently” forming independent conglomerates of several tribes:
Well-known rulers of this period are Tynai, Atake, Esengul, Ormon (Sarybagysh), Karga, Biynazar, Menmurat, Borombai (Bugu), Tuleberdi, Jayil, Kanai, Jangarach (Solto), Sadyr-Han, Janbolot, Kachyke, Tailak (Saiak).
Northern Kyrgyzs because of continuous internecine wars were easy target for Chinese empire (Циньская империя), Kazakh sultans. Even Koqand khanate started its way on conquering Northern Kyrgyzstan. Therefore, some Kyrgyz rulers were trying to find help from Russian side, because they understood that by establishing relationships with Russian Empire they could preserve own power, authority and independence. The first ruler from Kyrgyz side, who tried to establish political relationships with Russian empire was Atake-Baatyr from Sarybagysh tribe. He sent his embassy with Abdyrahman Kuchakov and Shergazy to Russia. In August 1785 of 1785 the embassy arrived to Omsk. As a presents to queen one slave, 3 skins of snow leopard and 5 skins of lynx (рысь); to governor-general 2 runner-horses were given. The task of this embassy was to obtain support from Russian side, and change the caravan routes to Russia so that they cross Kyrgyzstan on their ways. Although the embassy came in December 29 of 1785, the queen Katherine II received the guests only in March 15 of 1786.
Then only in 1811, 1812, 1813 Russian caravans were sent to Kyrgyztsan (Issyk-Kul) with investigating goals, which meant that Russian empire finally got interest in Kyrgyzstan. Their interest got activated as Great Game started, when Great Britain launched its conquering campaign. Great Game is the rivalry between the British Empire and the Russian Empire for supremacy in Central Asia (19th century). The Great Game term is attributed to Arthur Conolly, an officer of British army.
In late 1813 another embassy from Kyrgyz side (Issyk-Kul tribe - bugu) was sent to Russian empire with Kachybek and Jakypbek. After this embassy’s trip stable development of Kyrgyz-Russian relations ships started to form.
In 1825 in kurultai near Jyrgalan river bugu tribe had come to decision of rather joining Russian empire than Koqand khanate.
The full citizenship (подданство) of Bugu tribe was activated only after severe confrontations with Sarybagysh tribe, during one of such confrontations Ormon-Han, the ruler of Sarybagysh, was killed and Sarybagysh tribe started its vendetta. In January 17 of 1855 Kachybek, the ambassador from bugu tribe, arrived to Omsk and swore fidelity to Russian empire. That’s the date when Bugu tribe officially joined Russian empire as the first tribe to do so.
In 60s of XIX century Russian Empire decided to finish the annexation of Kyrgyz tribes. In august 23 of 1860 Russian troops of Zimmerman occupied Tokmok fortress (Koqand’s) and destroyed in 28th.
Very important battle between Russian empire and Koqand khanate happened in 1861 near Uzun-Agach, when Russian troops destroyed Koqand troops.
In 1862 Kemin Kyrgyz joined Russian empire.
In 1862 joint troops of Russian empire and Baitik-baatyr (Solto) had finally conquered and destroyed Pishpek fortress.
The whole Northern part of Kyrgyzstan was conquered by Russian empire in 1868, when fortresses in Naryn and Karakol were built.
Uprising of Polot-Han (Ishak Hasan uulu) started in 1873 against Kudoiar-Han of Koqand khanate. In 1874 part of the rebels asked of joining Russian Empire Turkestan’s governor-general. But in 1875 Russian troops aided Koqand troops in crushing the uprising. After these actions from Russian side, the rebels, who were not only Kyrgyz, resisted Russian troops as well. In 1875 Polot-Han ran away to Chon Alai. In 1876 Koqand khanate was liquidated by Russian empire. The same year Polot-han was caught and was killed through hanging.
The only part of Kyrgyzstan which was still not a part of Russian empire was Alai. This region of Kyrgyzstan resisted a lot, especially sons of famous Kurmanjan-datka. She understood that they can no longer resist Russian troops, that soon or late they would be conquered; and she stopped her sons and officially proclaimed about joining to Russian empire in 1876. So the Kyrgyzstan was annexed in 1876.
Central Asia and the Kyrgyz under the Russian Rule in the 19- early 20th centuries: economic, political and cultural development and its consequences.
October Revolution and formation of Kyrgyz statehood (1924-1936)
In October 24, 1917 there was a Revolution in Russia. The Bolshevik Party headed by V.Lenin announced the defeat of Temporal Government. The II Russian Congress of Councils elected a Committee of People Commissars, which was the first government of Bolshevik Party. They took two important decrees. Peace Decree and Land Decree. On the territory of present Kyrgyzstan establishing of the Soviet Power had some differences. Soviet authority was established in the south inn 1917. Kyzyl-Kia and Sulukta towns announced the establishment of Soviet Power. In Northern Kyrgyzstan the Soviet power was established in Talas town in December, 1917. In Pishpek organized Bolshevik groups headed by A.Ivanitsin, Shvetz-Bazarniy, and M.Merkun.
Economical, Political, and Cultural Reforms
Economic reforms
Land Decree 1917:
Communal state land
Invalidation of all credit payments
Organization of agrarian cooperative farms
Land-Water reform in 1921-24 in Central Asia
Aim: expropriation of land from Russian landlords (kulak) and equalization of land rights
Formation of local peasant class
Fighting against local nomadic elite
Formation of kolkhozes –
In 1925 arable lands 325,000 desyatin or 50,3 % in contrast to 25% in 1914
Industrialization:
In 1929 – first 5-year plan of Kyrgyz ASSR
Refined and cultivated branches of industry
Recast of cotton, vegetables.
Turksib(turkestan Siberian magistral) railway was an important reason for industry of Central Asia because it connected CA with Siberia and Ural
Formation of worker class and professional communities
The Victory of Lenin’s party and defense of Soviet Power (1917-1920)
November 7th, 1917 – Council of People Commissars – the first government of peasants and workers
November 1917 – June 1918 – Soviet Power in Kyrgyzstan
Organization of Defense Military Force: Pishpek Soviet Troop (sept.1918) headed by Ya. Logvinenko, Turkistan Front (august 1919) headed by M.Frunze
The first Party of Kyrgyz peasants and nomads
Sarykulakov Kojomurat (1892-1918) was born in Pishpek, In 1911 graduated from Verniy gymnasium. In 1911-1913 he studied in Saint Vladimir Kiev university. In February 1917 came back home and was a chief of Bukhara party
Formation of Kyrgyz Soviet Socialistic Republic (1917-1924)
March-October 1917 - establishing three parties and rules
Council of solder deputies, “Bukhara” party (Bolshevik)
Mensevik parties
”Alash”, “Shuro-i-Islam”, (Islamic council) “Turan” Nationalistic and Islamic parties
Political reforms:
1917 - Declaration of the rights of people of Russia (base of national politics)
1917 – Address to worker Muslim of Russia and East (equality of rights)
26-29 November 1917-22 February 1918 – Kokand autonomy by nationalistic Muslim leaders of Central Asia
1918 formation of Turkistan Soviet Socialistic Republic
Attempt to establish Kyrgyz Mountainous Republic inside Turkistan Soviet Socialistic Republic by Yu.Abdrakhmanov and A.Sydykov
1924 – formation of Turkmen SSR, Kazakh SSR, Uzbek SSR, Tajik autonomous oblast, Kara-Kyrgyz oblast, Kara-Kalpak autonomous oblast, Kara-Kyrgyz ASSO:
Population - 829,000
Territory – 200, 000 sq.km, 6 cites, 321 villages and 5 khutors
1926 Kara-Kyrgyz ASSR in the Russian federation
1926 – the first Constitution of Kyrgyz ASSR
Stalin’s politics and Repression
Stalin+Bukharin fraction against Zinov’ev-Trotskiy fraction
1929 – Stalin’s politics about the liquidation of kulak class
In Kyrgyzstan were repressed more than 40,000 people
(population of Kyrgyzstan on that time was 1, 4 mln)
The Rebellions 1898 and 1916 against the Russian Colonization.
Andijan rebellion came into history as the largest popular movement of the late 19th in Central Asia. The main reasons of the rebellion were the tsarist colonial policy, strengthening of social and national oppression, tyranny, encouraged by Russian authorities against the local population. The representatives of the rebellion were people of the Kyrgyz, Uzbek, Tajik nationalities, different social strata. The rebellion was aimed for protection of interests of the general population, and it had a national liberation nature. Andijan rebellion broke out on 17 May, in 1898 in the Tajik village, which was led by ishan Madali Dukchi. The rebels attacked Andijan, but then they were defeated. Also, the leaders of the uprising were Omorbek-Datka Alymov in the Ferghana Valley and Shadyrbek Shergazy uulu in Ketmen-Tube of Suusamyr volost, but they also were defeated. Despite the defeat, Andijan rebellion was the first manifestation of people's struggle against colonial nationalist policies, provided by tsarist government in Turkestan. It was the people's struggle for independence. Andijan rebellion became the powerful push to the awakening of national consciousness and the further emergence of forces in the struggle for liberation.
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