International relations
In the VI century BC the founder of the Great Persian Empire of the Achaemenids, Cyrus II, decided to conquer the territory of northern Sakas. The military campaign of Cyrus initiated against northern Sakas ruled by the Queen Tomiris in 530 was unsuccessful. Though the first battle was won by the Persians and the son of Tomiris was killed, the second battle brought to the defeat of Persians and the death of Cyrus.
More successful were the campaigns of another Persian ruler, Darius I. He could defeated Sakas in 519 and forced them to pay tributes to Persians.
Later Sakas established good and peaceful relations with Persians and even fought on the side of Persians in Greco-Persian Wars in 500-449.
Sakas of the IV century BC fought with the army of Alexander the Great. In the battle of 329 Sakas were defeated by Alexander but did not let him to penetrate further to their territory.
Wu-sun Go (II BC – V CE)
The term Wu-sun is known from the Chinese chronicles. It is translated as “people of ten tribes” from Turkic. Initially, Wu-sun roamed along with Hunnu (Hsiun-nu) to the west from the Great Chinese Wall. Later in II BC, defeated by Hsiun-nu they migrated to the territory of Sakas. As a result, a new state was established.
The Wu-sun was of European race, people with red hair and blue eyes, appearance unusual for the population of Central Asia. However, their language, whether it belonged to Iranian or Turkic languages, is still questioned.
The capital of the new state became Chigu-chen (“the city of the red valley”). According to some calculations, the city was located in Tup gulf in the western part of the Issyk Kul Lake. According to other estimations, it was in the southern coast of the Issyk Kul Lake.
Wu-sun state was the state of nomads ruled by a monarch – kunbag. The power of the monarch was limited by the Council of Elders which also was engaged in the decision making. The state machine was more developed compare to the Saka state. It included more than 16000 state officials. Wu-sun state also had a strong army of more than 630000 soldiers.
In II BC Chinese Han dynasty became interfered in the internal affairs of Wu-suns. The Chinese send their diplomatic mission with valued gifts and a Chinese princess for the kunbag to Wu-sun in order to install good relations with them. However, the main reasons of their mission were to control the Great Silk Road that opened in II BC and to destroy their main enemy – Hsiun-nu. On the other hand, Hsiun-nu also sent their embassy to Wu-sun with their princess as a new wife for the kunbag.
In I BC Unguimi (Feivan) became the kunbag of the state. In 71 BC Wu-suns along with Chinese troops came out against the Hsiun-nu and defeated them. The Hsiun-nu state was destroyed and the Hsiun-nu had to migrate to the west where they created a new state led by Attila.
The main economic activity was nomadic or semi-nomadic pastoralism. Wu-suns bred horses, cattle, sheep and goats.
The culture of Wu-sun is very similar to the culture of Sakas. Therefore, it is often called as Saka-Wu-sun culture. Wu-sun tombs and the way of life resembled Sakas’ kurgans and their way of life.
Davan State in the History of Kyrgyzstan and Central Asia (2nd century BC-6th century AD).
Davan State (II BC – V CE)
In the II-I century BC on the territory of the Fergana valley a new state was established. The name of the state was mentioned in Chinese chronicles. It was Davan state.
The inhabitants of Davan were of European origin belonging to Iranian languages.
The capital was Ershi city. There were 70 large and small cities with a numerous population of about 300000 people. That is, Davan state was the union of smaller city-states ruled by local dynasties.
The political system included the central ruler, the Council of Elders, army. The Council of Elders that included all nobles of the state was much stronger compared to that of Wu-sun state. The council made important political decisions on the issues of war and peace and could even displace or kill the ruler in some cases. The army consisted of 60000 warriors armed with bow and arrows.
Davan was a strong state with agriculture as the basis of its economy. They planted crops, produced a good wine of grapes. Davan was also very famous for its beautiful horses. Various crafts were developed in Davan: pottery, textile, jewelry.
In order to get those horses, the Han dynasty sent a special embassy to Davan. However, the main reason of the embassy was the control over the Silk Road, on which Davan was located.
The Council of Elders refused to sell its horses to Chinese and even killed the ambassador who appeared to be arrogant and impudent. The Chinese emperor announced the war against Davan and sent its troops led by Li Guanli.
Several military campaigns were initiated against Davan during four years. During the first the Chinese army reached the eastern city Yu, occupied it but could not penetrated further. During the second they reached the capital – Ershi, besieged it for 40 days but could not subdue it.
Pastoralist and settled people were in great need of the each other’s goods. First, the exchange was made by force. Tributes were paid by farmers subordinated to nomadic pastoralists. Later trade became very important source of exchange. Trade connected nomads, agriculturalists, hunters and craftsmen.
Trade also bound the Mediterranean region with China through the territory of Central Asia. The Mediterranean region exported their olive oil, wine, amphora, vases, metalwork. Chinese brought their silk, textile, bronze articles. Pastoralists of Central Asia exported their furs, fish, livestock, honey, wax, slaves (who were of little use for nomads) to the Mediterranean and China.
The Rise and Fall of Turks: Eastern and Western Turkic, Turgesh and Karluk Dynasties (6-9th centuries).
Turkic Empire (552-744)
Turgesh khaganate (704-766)
Qarluk khaganate (8-9 centuries)
Since the 6th century a new period took place in the history of Kyrgyzstan and Central Asia, the Turkic era - the period of Turkic states and dynasties which ruled on the vast territories of Central Asia. Gradually Turks Turkified the previously Iranian population of Central Asia, European look was replaced by Mongolian racial features and Iranian languages were substituted by Turkic languages.
Turkic khaganate (552-744)
The Turks established their khanate in the middle of the 6th century. The territory of Turkic state covered the territory of South Siberia, Kazakhstan and Central Asia. It existed for more than two centuries till 744.
The name Turks was first mentioned in the Chinese chronicle of the 6th century. The name was used by Sogdians, Persians and Byzantians for the new nomads of the steppes. It meant “strong, stable, courageous”. First the term probably had a social but not an ethnic meaning; it was used for the nobility. Later it became the name of all tribes.
Turkic tribes descended from the Hsiung-nu tribes in the 4-5th centuries. They spoke Turkic languages and were of Mongolian racial type.
The capital of Turkic state was Orkhon in northern Mongolia.
The founder of the Turkic state was Bumin. His successors were his son Muqan and his younger brother Istemi. Muqan became the ruler of eastern branch, while Istemi ruled the western branch (the territory of present-day Kyrgyzstan).
By economy the Turks were nomadic and semi-nomadic pastoralists. Turkic state also included the region of Transoxania that was Iranian-speaking and agriculturalist.
In 603 the Turkic state split into two khaganates: the Eastern located in the east of the Altai Mountains, the Orkhon Valley of northwestern Mongolia, and the Western located in Western Tianshan Mountains and Semirechye.
The capital of the Western Turkic khaganate became Suyab (near present Tokmok city). The most prominent ruler of the Western Turks was Ton Jabgu Khagan who carried out a number of reforms. He was a clever politician and military leader.
In the external politics he could pursue the anti-Iranian policy and formed an alliance with Byzantium against Iran, its main enemy. He captured former Iranian territories of Toharistan, Afghanistan, Transcaucasia.
In the internal politics he implemented an administrative reform providing the equal rights for nomadic and settled aristocracy. However, his reform was not complete. He was killed by one of the feudals who did not like his reform.
The new threat came from China. In 630 the Chinese army conquered the Eastern Turks and 656 they defeated the Western Turks on the Ili River. In 704 the Turgesh killed the last Turkic khagan and became the last date of the Western Turkic state.
In 679 Eastern Turks rebelled against the Tang Empire and could restore the Second Turkic state for a while. It became a strong state under the rule of Kapagan Khagan who initiated a few military campaigns to restore the Great Turkic Khaganate of his predecessors. In 744, the Second Turkic Khaganate was crashed by unified forces of Uighurs, Qarluks and Basmyls.
Turgesh Khaganate (704-766)
On the territory of former Western Turkic Empire in the 8th century the Turgesh tribes established another state - Turgesh state that also recognized the Chinese suzerainty.
The Turgesh was also Turkic speaking tribes. They had two main lines: yellow and black Turgesh who always fought with each other.
Their capital was the same – Suyab city.
The founder of the ruling dynasty became Uch Ilig Khagan – the ruler of the Yellow Turgesh. His successor was his son Sakal Khagan.
The situation in the state was very complicated. It was threatened by China in the south, Second Turkic Khaganate in the east and the Arabs in the west. The main threat was represented by Second Turkic Khaganate.
In 710, a tripartite alliance of Turgesh, China and the Yenisei Kyrgyzs was formed against the Second Turkic Khaganate. However, the ruler of Turks Kapagan Khagan predicted it and defeated them separately. First he destroyed the Yenisei Kyrgyz, then Turgesh army and finally Chinese.
Sakal Khagan was captured and killed.
Qarluk State (8-10 centuries)
Qarluks were the Turks who replaced Turgesh. Qarluks were tribes that roamed from Mongolia till the Balkhash Lake.
In 744, the unified forces of Qarluks, Uighurs and Basmyls crashed the Second Turkic Khaganate. The new state emerged was the Uighur Khaganate (744-840). It ruled the territory from Altai Mountains to Manchuria.
In 746, the Qarluks oppressed by Uighurs had to migrate to Semirechye, where they had to play a significant role in the struggle against Chinese. The Chinese army invaded the territory of Chui valley, captured the Suyab city and destroyed it. The Arabs who were also interested in conquering that region could not allow Chinese to interfere in the domestic affairs of Central Asia and came out against.
Two armies met in 751 on the Talas River. None could attack. During the fifth day Qarluks suddenly attacked the back (rear) part of Chinese that brought victory to the Arabs.
The Arabs victory had more lasting and far-reaching consequences. China did not appear on the territory of Central Asia for more than 1000 years. The region became the new center of Islamic culture. Turks became the third main people after the Arabs and Persians who converted to Islam and contributed a lot to the development and prosperity of the Muslim culture in the 9-12 century. Turkic became the third main language of the Islamic civilization.
In 893, the first Muslim dynasty in Central Asia, the Samanid state, conquered the territory of Qarluks and extended its power over them.
The Qarakhanids in the History of Kyrgyzstan and Central Asia (9-12th centuries). Qarakhanid Khaganate (10-12 centuries)
The Qarakhanid State is the most prosperous period in the history and culture of the Turks. During that time Islamic literature, science and art flourished. The most prominent Muslim poets and scholars such Rudaki, Firdawsi, Kashgari, Balasaguni, ibn Sina, Biruni lived and created their masterpieces during that period of time.
The Qarakhanids were Turks whose origin can be traced to Qarluks. The term Qarakhanid was introduced by Russian scholars of the 19th century. Qarakhan means Great Khan, Great Ruler.
The territory of Qarakhanid state included Semirechye, Tienshan, Fergana, Eastern Turkestan. The capital was Balasagun city.
The founder of Qarakhanid dynasty was Satuk Bughra Khan who converted to Islam and made it the state religion of the state. The state flourished under the ruling of Ibrahim Tamgach Khan who built many mosques, madrasas, hospitals.
At the cultural level, Iranian people of Central Asia still played a dominant role. Famous poets Rudaki, Firdausi, Omar Hayam, Hafiz, Ibn Sina, a famous doctor, wrote in Arabic and Persian.
The first works in Turkic was the Divan Lugat at-Turk (Dictionary of Turkic Languages) of Mahmud Kashgari and the Qutadghu Bilig (the Wisdom of Felicity) by Yusuf Balasaguni written in 11 century.
In the late 11-early 12 centuries the Qarakhanid Khaganate was undergoing a serious crisis. The Seljuks subordinated the Qarakhanids to their rule but did not interfere in their internal affairs. In the 12th century the Seljuks were defeated by Qarakhitay, nomads of Mongolian origin. In 1218, the Qarakhanids and the Qarakhitay were overthrown by the Naymans, another Mongolian tribe.
The Great Silk Road on the territory of Kyrgyzstan and Central Asia in the 2nd century BC-15th century AD: Exchange of Trades, Religions and Ideas.
Great Silk Road (IIBC-XVI)
International overland trade route across the Asian continent (network of routes)
7000 km
3 years
First discovered by Chang Tan, a Chinese traveler and spy
The Central Asian region was a bridge connecting the West and East
Declined because of the Sea Route
Commercial, cultural and technological exchange
Exchange between traders, merchants, pilgrims, soldiers, nomads and urban dwellers
A significant factor in the development of the great civilizations
Laid the foundations to the modern world
Great Silk Road in Kyrgyzstan
Southern branch (Alay Mountains)
Fergana branch (the Fergana Valley: Osh, Uzgend; Central Tienshan)
Northern branch (Chui Valley, Boom George, Issyk-Kul Lake), in Barskon spitted into to: Yenisei Kyrgyz in Southern Siberia and Eatern Turkestan
Goods
Horses, sheep, camels, skins, wool, fur, slaves from nomads
Silver vessels, weaponry, gold, silver, mercury from the settled
Herbs, walnuts, glue from the Fergana Valley
Silk, bronze mirrors, porcelain, faience from China
Sogdian, Chinese, Turgesh, Qarakhanid coins (dinar, dirhem, fels)
Architecture and Art
Burana Tower (XI century)
A Minaret near Tokmok city
Height – 24 m (40 m)
Made of mud bricks
Uzgen Minaret (XI century)
Three parts:
the lower part is an octahedron
the middle part is a tapering cylinder
the upper part is a lantern with a cupola and arched windows
Height - 27.5 m (44.7m)
Made of mud bricks
11 ornamented belts
Uzgen Mausoleums (XI-XII centuries)
Three mausoleums:
Northern
Middle (height 13 m)
Southern
Made of mud bricks
Decorated with a geometrical and vegetation pattern, terracotta tiles and carved Arabic inscriptions
Koshoi Korgon (VII-XIII centuries)
Fortified settlement
Naryn region
Headquarters of
Nomadic rulers
(At-Bash)
Walls height – 5-8 m
(10 m)
Shakh Fazil Mausoleum (XI century)
A rectangular building with a domed roof
Height - 15 m
Tash Rabat Caravansary (XV century)
A medieval inn for
merchants and travelers
on the Great Silk Road
Balbals – stone sculptures (VI-X)
Northern Kyrgyzstan
Round sculptures with clear proportions and details (clothes, jewelry, weapons)
Flat sculptures with face and facial features
Male of Mongoloid origin,
a vessel in the right hand
and a knife or sabre on the waist
The Material Culture of Turks in the 6-12th centuries: housing, clothing and food.
Housing
Yurt – portable house
Vertical sticks – kerege
A smoke duct - tyunduk
Wooden poles – uuk
Hearth - kolomto
Threshold - bosogo
Rugs, carpets - shyrdak and ala kiyiz
Right side (epсhi jak) - female section
Left side (er jak) - male section
The most honorable place (tyor) - opposite to the entrance
Clothing
Long shirt– koynek
Trousers - shym
Males outerwear – ton
Fur coat – ichik
Cloak - chepken
Headdress– kalpaks, tebetei
Skirt – beldemchi
Turban - elechek
Religions
Shamanism
Zoroastrianism
Buddhism
Christianity
Islam
Literature
Divan Lugat at-Turk (Dictionary of Turkic Languages) of Makhmud Kashgari
Kutadgu Bilig (Blessed Knowledge) of Yusuf Balasaghuni
Food: due to sedentary culture, Kyrgyz began horticulture: growing potato, tomato and etc.
Jarma (drink)
Kimiz (drink)
Kurut (dried-source…)
Beshbarmak
Horse meat is eaten at ritual ceremonies
Music: in 19thc Kyrgyz music had different genres, were for different purposes:
Patriotic
Nationalistic
Religious
Begbeke (sung for protecting cattle)