It is probably due to this fact that in order to convey more adequately the actual utterances of characters in emotive prose, a new way to repre­sent direct speech came into being—r epresented speech.

Represented speech is that form of utterance which conveys the actual words of the speaker through the mouth of the writer but retains the peculiarities of the speaker's mode of expression.

Represented speech exists in two varieties: 1) uttered represented speech and 2) unuttered or inner represented speech.

Uttered represented speech demands that the tense should be switched from present to past and that the personal pronouns should be changed from 1st and 2nd person to 3rd person as in indirect speech, but the syntactical structure of the utterance does not change. For example:

"Could he bring a reference from where he now was? He could." (Dreiser)

Sometimes the shift is almost imperceptible—the author's narrative sliding over into the character's utterance without any formal indications of the switch-over.

This manner of inserting uttered represented speech within the au­thor's narrative is not common. It is peculiar to the style of a number of modern English and American writers. The more usual structural model is one where there is either an indication of the shift by some introduc­tory word (smiled, said, asked, etc.) or by a formal break like a full stop at the end of the sentence.

Uttered represented speech has a long history. As far back as the 18th century it was already widely used by men-of-letters, evidently be­cause it was a means by which what was considered vulgar might be excluded from literature, i.e. expletives, vivid colloquial words, expres­sions and syntactical structures typical of the lively colloquial speech of the period. Indeed, when direct speech is represented by the writer, he can change the actual utterance into any mode of expression he considers appropriate.

Unuttered or Inner Represented Speech

As has often been pointed out, language has two functions: the com­municative and the expressive. The communicative function serves to convey one's thoughts, volitions, emotions and orders to the mind of a second person. The expressive function serves to shape one's thoughts and emotions into language forms. This second function is believed to be the only way of materializing thoughts and emotions. Without language forms thought is not yet thought but only something being shaped as thought.

The thoughts and feelings going on in one's miad and reflecting some previous experience are called inner speech.

Inner speech is a psychological phenomenon. But when it is wrought into full utterance, it ceases to be inner speech, acquires a communicative function and becomes a phenomenon of language. The expressive function of language is suppressed by its communicative function, and the reader is presented with a complete language unit capable of carrying informa­tion. This device is called inner represented speech.

However, the language forms of inner represented speech bear a resemblance to the psychological phenomenon of inner speech. Inner represented speech retains the most characteristic features of inner speech. It is also fragmentary, but only to an extent which will not hinder the understanding of the communication.

Inner represented speech, unlike uttered represented speech, ex­presses feelings and thoughts of the character which were not materialized in spoken or written language by the character. That is why it abounds in exclamatory words and phrases, elliptical constructions, breaks, and other means of conveying feelings and psychological states. When a person is alone with his thoughts and feelings, he can give vent to those strong emotions which he usually keeps hidden.

Unuttered or inner represented speech follows the same morphological pattern as uttered represented speech.

The interrogative word-order is maintained as in direct speech. The fragmentary character of the utterance manifests itself in unfinished sentences, exclamations and in one-member sentences.

This device is undoubtedly an excellent one to depict a character. It gives the writer an opportunity to show the inner springs which guide his character's actions and utterances. Being a combination of the au-.thor's speech and that of the character, inner represented speech, on the one hand, fully discloses the feelings and thoughts of the character, his world outlook, and, on the other hand, through efficient and sometimes hardly perceptible interpolations by the author himself, makes the de­sired impact on the reader.

Билет 36.

Phonetic Expressive Means and Stylistic Devices.

The stylistic approach to the utterance is not confined to its struc­ture and sense. There is another thing to be taken into account which, in a certain type of communication, viz. belles-lettres, plays an impor­tant role. This is the way a word, a phrase or a sentence sounds* The sound of most words taken separately will have little or no aesthetic value. It is in combination with other words that a word may acquire a desired phonetic effect. The way a separate word sounds may produce a certain euphonic impression, but this is a matter of individual per­ception and feeling and therefore subjective. For instance, a certain English writer expresses the opinion that angina [aen'dжaina], pneumonia [nju'mounia], and uvula I'ju:vjulэ] would make beautiful girl's names instead of what he calls "lumps of names like Joan, Joyce and Maud"* In the poem "Cargoes" by John Masefield he considers words like ivory, sandal-wood, cedar-wood, emeralds and amethysts as used in the first two stanzas to be beautiful.

As one poet has it, this is a combination of words which is dif­ficult to pronounce, in which the words rub against one another, inter­fere with one another, push one another."

The theory of sound symbolism is based on the assumption that sepa­rate sounds due to their articulatory and acoustic properties may awake certain ideas, perceptions, feelings, images, vague though they might be. Recent investigations have shown that "it is rash to deny the existence of universal, or widespread, types of sound symbolism." 3 In poetry we cannot help feeling that the arrangement of sounds carries a definite aesthetic function. Poetry is not entirely divorced from music. Such no­tions as harmony, euphony, rhythm and other sound phenomena undoubt­edly are not indifferent to the general effect produced by a verbal chain. Poetry, unlike prose, is meant to be read out loud and any oral perform­ance of a message inevitably involves definite musical (in the broad sense of the word) interpretation.

Onomatopoeia: is a combination of speech-sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (wind, sea, thunder, etc), by things (machines or taols, etc), by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet, etc) and by animals. Combinations of speech sounds of this type will inevitably be associated with whatever produces the natural sound. Therefore the relation between onomatopoeia and the phenomenon it is supposed to represent is one of metonymy.

There are two varieties of onomatopoeia: direct and indirect

Alliteration is a phonetic stylistic device which aims at im­parting a melodic effect to the utterance. The essence of this device lies in the repetition of similar sounds, in particular consonant sounds, in close succession, particularly at the beginning of successive words.

Rhyme: Rhyme is the repetition of identical or similar terminal sound combinations of words.

Rhyming words are generally placed at a regular distance from each other. In verse they are usually placed at the end of the corresponding lines.

1. couplets —when the last words of two successive lines are rhymed. This is commonly marked aa.

2. triple rhymes—aaa

3. cross rhymes—abab

4. framing or ring rhymes—abba

Rhythm: Rhythm in language necessarily demands oppositions that alter­nate: long, short; stressed, unstressed; high, low; and other contrasting segments of speech. Some theoreticians maintain that rhythm can only be perceived if there are occasional deviations from the regularity of alternations.

The Assonance – the repetition of similar vowels usually in stressed syllables. (Nor soul flesh now more than flesh helps soul).They both produce the effect of euphony (афония) – a sense of ease and comfort, a pleasing effect of pronouncing and hearing.

The opposite process is cacophony – a sense of strain and discomfort in pronouncing and hearing.