2Edary ways of semantic change.

Semantic change olso results in the change ofthe connotational structure of the word.

the thing denoted by a word, may ac.quire sertain positibe or negative characteristics

whish are reflected 1st in the denotational than in the connotaional component of word meaning.

the proces when the object to whish the word referrsacquires negative charracteristics and the meaning develops a negative evaluative connotation is termed degradation.

ore pejoration of meaning.

the old english word "canafa" (in modern eglish knave-(подлец).

meant a boy then a boy servant, and finally a swindler(мошенник) a scoundrel-негодяй. значение, изначально было положительным, позже получило негативную окраску.

The mobern english word boor(хам) originally meant peasant.

so the words acquite a negative connotation.

The development of a positive evaluative connotation is colled "elevation" of meaning.

Thus in Old Eng. the word "сwen" (in modern Eng qween) meant wooman

cnite in Modern Eng.(рыцарь) meant a young servant so the meanings of the words have been elevated.

the meaning of the word "nice" when it first appeared in middle english was foolish, silly, simple, egnorant, sencless, absurd.

Celtic borrowings

Celts were the orrigional ihabitants of the british isles. before the anglis, sacsona, jutes came to the icles in the 5th C.

Celtic borrowings were not numerous in the Engl. language..

f.eg. down, cradle(колыбель) bard, brat(тряпка) druid,balt.

but celtic elements are well preserved in plase names.the names of some british rivers, contain the celtin wird "usge, exe esk"whish means "water".

It is also contained, in the wors whisky, form. meanig "the water of live".

the celtic word "dun"-крепость. is found in the town names Dundee, Dunbar.

word

cum-долина. Duncombe, Boscombe.

llan - церковь.Landovery.

Langefini.

landon is the caltic origin too.llyn-река dun-крепость.

some male names are of celtic origin.

Arthur(благородный) ,donald(гордый вождь), Evan(молодой воин).

Itallian borroings: bank,bancrot, vocanio, bonze, manifasto

Spanish borrowings: trade terms:cargo,embargo,names of dances and musical instruments :tango, rumba, guitar.

German borrowings:there are geological terms:sink. quarts.

words, denoting ojects used in every day live.

kindergarten, raxec.

Units borrowed in the period of the 2ed world war: SS-man, Bundeswehr-(вооруженные силы). Units after the period of the 2ed Wow. Ostarbeaiter,

Volkswagen.

Dutch borrowings: As eraly as the middle ages ther were close contacts, between the british and dutsh traiders, fisher and seeman.

dutch borrowings are connected with weaving.

f.e.g to gloss(придавать блеск такни), shpool-шпилька,

connected with seefaring, and sheep building.

deck, yocht,skeepper.

art, espessialy painting: Skatsh, landscape,

every day metters:lack, waigan, brendy, doss, doolze,(пьянка)

arabic and persian borrowings: in the mddle ages, the arabs, hab a highly developed science, which influenced, the development, of european seice, many medical, astronomical, mathematical, botenical, chemical, and other terms were borrowed by the english language.

f.ed elixir, algorhitm, ziro, apricot, coffe, cotton, sandal.

Word building

word building is one of the main ways of enreaching vocabulary.

there are 4 major ways, of worgs building in modern Engl.

1 effixation

2 сomposition

3 conversion

4 abbriviation

There are also minor.

Sound entershange stress intershange, sound imitation,blands, and backformations.

1Afgixation has been one of the most productive ways of word building throuhout the history of English.

it consist innadding an afgix, to the steam(основа) оf a defginit part of speesh.

Affixation is divided into :suffixation, and preffixation.

Suffixation is the main function of suffixes in moderm English, of forming one

art of speesh from another.

the 2edary function is to change the lexical meaning of the same part of speech.

there are different classifications of suffixes: 1 part of speesh classification of suffixes.

a) noun forming fuffixes. -er(teasher)

- dom(kingdom) -ism(partiatizm)

b) ajective, forming suffixes:

-eble(eateble)

-less(homeless) -s(delisious)

c) verb forming suffixes: -ize (computerize), -ify(classify)

d) adverb forming suffixes: -ly(singly)

e) numeral forming suffixes: - teen (16) tу(60,20).

Semantic classification of suffixes

Here wevhave suffixes, changing the lexical meaning of the stem(грамматич) основа слова)

nown forming suffixes can denote

a) the agent of the ection.

f.eg experementer, taxist, student

b) nationality:Russian, Japanese, English.

c) Collectivity(cобирательные): moviedom(киноманы) readership(книголюбы)

literati (литератароы)

deminotivness.

bukletgoosling, kitchenette, hanki(носовой платок) horsy(лошадка) qualiti.

happynes, capobility.

femenin gender: actress, heroine,cosmounette.

g)absrtact notion(обстрактные понятия) childhood, politeness, age.

derogatonirng meaning

gangster.

2'ed group

with the vowel or consonant as a connecting element.

f.ex speedometr so the vowel "o" is a connecting element.

3'ed group

with the preposition or a cojunction as a connecting element.

"brother-in-law" the preposition "in" unites two words.

mater-of-pearl.

Up-to-date, day-and-night.

2'ed classification. according tothe structure.

the1'st group consisting of simple stemps

heartbeat.

One steam is simplethe other is a derived one. for ex.

video-plauer

chain-smoker.

3'd group. one of the stemps is clipped or shattend.

f.ex. pop music, Xmas,

4'th group. one of the elements is a compound itself.

f.ex wastepaper. basket

3'ed classification.

According to therelations between the elements.

the 1'st group. coordinative, compounds.

wher the 2 elements are semantically independent.

f.ex secratary-stenoprapher, anglo-saxon.

2'ed subordinative compounds

one of the components is the semantic center and the structural center and the

2'ed component is subordinate.

f.ex heartbeat beat is the center the head of the element.

the4'th classif. part of speech classification.

the1'st group compound nowns

the 2'eb group compound ajectives.f.ex blue-eyed, left-handed.

the 3-ed group compound verbs. f.ex to bypass, to hitchhike.

Conversion.

Convertion is making a new word from an existing word by changing the category of a part of speech.

f.ex. work, to work.

water, to water.

Convertion is the main way of phoneme werbs in English.

Verbs can be formed from nouns of different semantic groups, and have different meanings.