Unit 2 Sanitation Microbiology: History Of The Subject

I Reading and Speaking Practice Section

1. Guess the meaning of the following international words:

infections, hygienic, association, initiatives, regulations, concept, standards, conditions, mariners, hospitals, Hygienic Laboratory, infrastructure, emphasis, genetic, chronic, strategies

2. Learn the names of some International Health Organizations:

Marine Hospital Service] больничное обслуживание моряков

Public Health Service санитарно-эпидемиологическая служба

Hygienic Laboratory эпидемиологическая лаборатория

National Institutes of Health национальные институты здравоохранения

Centers for Disease Control  Государственный центр санитарно-эпидеми- 

ческого надзора США

World Health Organization (WHO), Всемирная Организация здравоохранения

United Nations International Чрезвычайный фонд помощи детям при

Children's Emergency Fund (UNICEF) Организации Объединенных Наций

Text A Sanitation Microbiology: The Development Of Public Health Initiatives And Regulations Infections caused by micro-organisms are often spread more easily in an unsanitary environment. Even today, for example, Escheriichia coli infections of food and between people are still commonly caused by poor hygienic practices, such as failure to wash hands properly after using the toilet or disposing of waste. Due to the close association between microbial infection and sanitary conditions many public health initiatives and regulations have been introduced around the world. Before the recognition of the role of microbes in causing infections and even prior to the realisation that microbes existed as such public health was a foreign concept. The history of public health developed hand in hand with the concept of the involvement of micro-organisms in causing diseases. Before the 14th century public health as such was unknown. Sanitary conditions in cities were appalling by today's standards. At that time nobody made the connection between the flow of raw sewage alongside streets and outbreaks of infectious diseases. The occurrence of bubonic plague in Europe in 1348 was the turning point . Between 1348 and 1350 the infection caused by Yersinia pestis killed almost two thirds of the population in the major urban centres of Europe. In the aftermath of this devastation came an increased awareness of the link between healthy sanitary conditions and the prevention of diseases. In the 1350's Italian Government initiatives sought to improve sanitary and living conditions, even though at that stage the existence of micro- organisms was unknown. By the sixteenth century the idea of microbial causes of disease (e.g. 'contagion') was a subject for debate. In the United States an organised public health initiative started in the late 18th century eventually becoming the Public Health Service of today . Legislation passed by the United States Congress in 1798 provided care and relief for sick sailors. Naval Hospitals were established on the eastern seaboard and, later, in cities on the Great lakes, the Gulf Coast and the Pacific Coast. In 1870 the control of these hospitals became the responsibility of the newly formed Marine Hospital Service , with its Headquarters in Washington DC. Because sailors were often the carriers of infectious diseases picked up in other countries, the Marine Hospital Service soon became involved with infectious diseases. In 1887 a small bacteriology laboratory (The Hygienic Laboratory0 was set up at a Marine Hospital on Staten island in New York Harbour. This was later moved to Washington DC becoming the National Institute of Health, later renamed the Public Health and Marine Service in 1902 and ten years later the Public health Service. In the twentieth century the Service's role in controlling infectious microbial diseases and funding infectious disease research expanded. During the 19th century, microbiologists such as Louis Pasteur and Robert Koch demonstrated the involvement of bacteria in disease. The importance of maintaining a hygenic atmosphere in hospitals was recognised, whilst the invention by Joseph Lister of a disinfectant spray and the need to change surgeons' operating gowns decreased the mortality rate associated with operations. The research into the connection between micro-organisms in disease continues. Since the 1970's a series of micro-biologically related diseases (i.e. Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome) has achieved new significance in public health matters. Other diseases that were thought to be due genetic or physiological abnormality (e.g. stomach ulcers, heart disease) have appeared to be at least partially due to chronic bacterial infections. Ways to reduce outbreaks of such infectious agents has become another public health concern. Another significant event in the history of public health occurred in the last years of the 20th century. The importance of the adherent bacterial populations known as biofilms in the establishment and maintenance of long lasting infections which are extremely resistant to treatments was realised. Biofilms are important in environments ranging from the Operation Room and even the Drinking Water Treatment Plant. This has focused Public Health efforts on the need to prevent biofilm build up and strategies designed to eliminate biofilm bacteria.

EXERCISES TO THE TEXT

Practice 1. Summarize the text by listing:

- the ways microorganisms are often spread;

- the instituted public health initiatives and regulations;

- parallels in advances in the understanding of microorganisms and disease;

- the sanitary environment in urban centers in the fourteenth century;

- public health initiative in the United States;

- the reasons why the Marine Hospital Service became concerned with infectious diseases;

- the 19^th century famous microbiologists;

- bacterial populations known as biofilms

Practice 2. Re-read the text to find out which of its paragraph deals with:

- bubonic plague in Europe;

- the importance of maintaining a hygienic atmosphere in hospitals

- microbiologically related diseases

- Escherichia coli infections of food infections of food;

- biofilms;

- a small bacteriology laboratory created at a marine hospital on Staten Island in the New York harbor;

- hospitals for sailors;

- disinfectants

Practice 3. Re-read the text again to find out which of the following statements are true and which are false.

1. The importance of the adherent bacterial populations known as biofilms was recognized in the 16^th century.

2. Infections caused by microorganisms are often spread more easily in an unsanitary environment.

3. There is no association between microbial infection and sanitary conditions.

4. The diseases that were thought to be due to a genetic or physiological abnormality have appeared to be at least partially due to chronic bacterial infections.

5. At the 14th century there was no knowledge that, for example, the flow of raw sewage alongside streets was connected to illness.

6. The history of public health parallels advances in the understanding of microorganisms and disease.

7. The occurrence of bubonic plague in Europe in 1348 didn’t change the attitude to sanitary conditions.

8. The research of the involvement of microorganisms and disease has continued to the present day.

9. Ways to reduce outbreaks of such infectious agents has never been public health concern.

10. Biofilms are important in environments ranging from the Operation Room and even the Drinking Water Treatment Plant.

Practice 4. The answers to the following questions are the summary of the text. Answer these questions and give the summary of the text.

1. Is there any link between microbial infection and sanitary conditions?

2. Were sanitary conditions in Europe always at a high level?

3. From where and when organized public health takes its origins?

4. Was the involvement of bacteria in disease proved? By whom?

5. Does the research into the connection between micro-organisms in disease continue? In what way?

6. What other significant event in the history of public health do you know? With what does it deal with?

7. What is the biofilm?

Practice 5. Does this text give you sufficient information marine ecosystems?

What questions would you ask the author of the text?

Text B

Scientists condemn research into deadly mutant bird flu virus over fears of a dangerous leak

Do you happen to know of some similar cases in Russia/ other countries? What are the major reasons of these risks? What do you know about such experiments?

Then read the text to find out:

- what virus is mutant;

- how the researchers want to prevent and deal with a future flu pandemic;

- what are the potential risks of such mutant virus;

- why the benefits of this work outweigh the risks.

Leading scientists have condemned a decision to resume research using a mutant version of the deadly H5N1 bird flu virus that could spread between humans amid fears it could leak out or fall into the wrong hands.

Flu researchers have decided to lift a voluntary moratorium on their studies, imposed 12 months ago after a public outcry over their work.

They hope the studies will help them prevent and deal with a future flu pandemic, and that the benefits outweigh potential risks such as a leak of the mutant virus or the deliberate attempt to create deadly strains by terrorists or rogue governments.

In its current form, H5N1 spreads easily among poultry and wild birds but it is hard to transmit to humans and even harder between humans. But it has killed 360 out of 610 who have been infected since 2003.

Researchers engineered an airborne strain of the virus in December 2011 that was transmissible among mammals, before imposing the moratorium in order to explain the public health benefits of their work and put in place measures to minimize risks.

But Simon Wain-Hobson, professor of virology at the Pasteur Institute in Paris, told BBC Radio 4's Today programme: "The risk is that we don't understand these viruses.”

"We have no idea exactly how dangerous they would be if they were ever to get out. This work will be performed in high security labs but the track record is simply not perfect."

He said potential security problems had been "overlooked" and that, from an ethical point of view, it was not the job of scientists "to make the world a more dangerous place".

The ending of the moratorium was announced in a letter signed by 40 flu scientists to the journals Science and Nature, which had published earlier studies by Ron Fouchier of the Erasmus Medical Centre in Rotterdam and Yoshihiro Kawaoka of the University of Winsconsin-Madison.

They discovered that they could mutate the H5N1 strain so that it could be transmitted by air between laboratory ferrets, the standards animal used to study flu in humans.

Scientists fear that if airborne transmission becomes possible outside the lab it would lead to a deadly pandemic killing millions - leading some to press for such a mutation to be studied and others to fear the dangers by such research.

In their letter, the researchers wrote: "We fully acknowledge that this research - as with any work on infectious agents - is not without risks.

"However, because the risk exists in nature that an H5N1 virus capable of transmission in mammals may emerge, the benefits of this work outweigh the risks."

24 Jan 2013

Practice 1. Look through the text to find out who this text is intended for:

1) general reader;

2) students in veterinary medicine;

3) professional veterinarians .

Practice 2. 1) Reread the article to re-arrange the following questions in a logical order.

1. Have flu researchers decided to lift a voluntary moratorium on their studies?

2. Do flu researchers hope the studies will help them prevent and deal with a future flu pandemic?

3. Do flu researchers hope that the benefits outweigh potential risks?

4. Does H5N1, in its current form, spread easily among poultry and wild birds?

5. When did the researchers engineered an airborne strain of the virus that was transmissible among mammals?

6. What had been "overlooked?

7. What did the researchers of the Erasmus Medical Centre in Rotterdam discover?

8. What standard animals are used to study flu in humans?