25. What are the symptoms of acute renal failure? Describe its development.

Usually acute renal failure characterized by the period of oliguria lasting usually 10-14 days.(sometimes complete anuria during 1-2 days). In case of unrestricted intake of fluids edema may develop Clinical picture is dominated by the underlying cause. Urine is usually scanty and bloody. Specific gravity of the urine is high (presence of red blood cells and proteine, traces of glucose). Cardiovascular complications develop (overhydration – pulmonary edema and cardiac failure). Infections are often complication (hospital organisms or sepsis), anaemia (second week) caused by a decrease of erythrocyte destruction.

This period followed by next period of relatively rapid return of urine flow and improvement of renal function, while water and metabolites accumulated during the oliguric period are excreted. (striking weight loss, dehydration, hyponatraemia, urinary losses of potassium). Sometimes diuresis followed by the second oliguric.(plateau or decrease in urine volume)

26. What is the treatment for the acute renal failure?

Once the cause is found, the goal of treatment is to restore kidney function and prevent fluid and waste from building up in the body while the kidneys heal. Usually, you have to stay overnight in the hospital for treatment. Your doctor or a kidney specialist (nephrologist) will try to treat the problem that is causing your kidneys to fail. Treatment can vary widely, depending on the cause. For example, your doctor may need to restore blood flow to the kidneys, stop any medicines that may be causing the problem, or remove or bypass a blockage in the urinary tract.

At the same time, the doctor will try to:

• Stop wastes from building up in your body. You may have dialysis. This treatment uses a machine to do the work of your kidneys until they recover. It will help you feel better.

• Prevent other problems. You may take antibiotics to prevent or treat infections. You also may take other medicines to get rid of extra fluid and keep your body’s minerals in balance.

The amount of liquid you eat (such as soup) or drink will be limited to the amount of urine you can produce. You will be told what you may and may not eat to reduce the buildup of toxins normally handled by the kidneys. Your diet may need to be high in carbohydrates and low in protein, salt, and potassium.

27. What organs does the respiratory system consist of? What is their anatomy and morphology?

The respiratory system (or ventilatory system) is the biological system that introduces respiratory gases to the interior and performs gas exchange.The respiratory system has 2 functional components, a conducting system for transport of inspired and expired gases between the atmosphere and the circulatory system, and an interface for passive exchange of gases between the atmosphere and blood. Respiration is achieved through the mouth, nose, trachea, lungs, and diaphragm. Oxygen enters the respiratory system through the mouth and the nose. The oxygen then passes through the larynx (where speech sounds are produced) and the trachea which is a tube that enters the chest cavity. In the chest cavity, the trachea splits into two smaller tubes called the bronchi. Each bronchus then divides again forming the bronchial tubes. The bronchial tubes lead directly into the lungs where they divide into many smaller tubes which connect to tiny sacs called alveoli. The average adult's lungs contain about 600 million of these spongy, air-filled sacs that are surrounded by capillaries. The inhaled oxygen passes into the alveoli and then diffuses through the capillaries into the arterial blood. Meanwhile, the waste-rich blood from the veins releases its carbon dioxide into the alveoli. The carbon dioxide follows the same path out of the lungs when you exhale.