Unit 10

I. Read the article and answer the questions. Primitive society on the territory of the british isles

In some parts of Britain one can see a number of huge stones standing in a circle. These are the monuments left by the earliest inhabitants of the country. The best-known stone-circle named Stonehenge dates from between 1900 and 1600 BC. It is made of upright stones, standing in groups of twos, 8.5 meters high. They are joined on the top by other flat stones, each weighing about 7 tons. No one can tell how these large stones were moved, or from what places they were brought. Stonehenge is still a mystery to scholars. What was it used for? As a burial-place or a sacred place where early man worshipped the sun?

About three thousand years BC many parts of Europe, including the British Isles, were inhabited by people who came to be known as the Iberians because some of their descendants are still found in the north of Spain (the Iberian Peninsula). We do not know much about these early people because they lived in Britain long before a word of their history was written, but we can learn something from their skeletons, their weapons and the remains of their dwellings which have been found. The Iberians used stone weapons and tools. The art of grinding and polishing stone was known to them, and they could make smooth objects of stone with sharp edges and points.

During the period from the 6^th to the 3^rd century BC a people called the Celts spread across Europe from east to west.

More than one Celtic tribe inhabited Britain. From time to time these tribes were attacked and overcome by other Celtic tribes from the Continent. Celtic tribes called the Picts penetrated into the mountains іn the north; some Picts as well as tribes of Scots crossed over to Ireland and settled there.

Later the Scots returned to the larger island and settled in the north beside the Picts. They came in such large numbers that in time the name of Scotland was given to that country. Powerful Celtic tribes, the Britons, held most of the country, and the southern half of the island was named Britain after them. Today the words “Briton” and “British” refer to the people of the whole of the British Isles.

We know more about the Celts than about the earlier inhabitants of the island, because of the written accounts that exist. The Celts did not write down the events themselves. Their life was described by other peoples who knew them. The Greeks were the first to men­tion the British Isles. It is from the Greek books that we know about the Phoenicians, who were great sailors and traders even before the Greeks and who traveled as far as the shores of Britain. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus who is called the Father of History wrote that in the 5^th century BC the Phoenicians used to come to the British Isles for tin which was used for making bronze. They called the British Isles the Tin Islands.

The earliest writer from whom we have learned much about the country and its inhabitants was Julius Caesar, a famous Roman general, statesman and writer. In his Commentaries on the Gallic War, a book written in Latin, Julius Caesar describes the island and the Celts against whom he fought. He tells us that the Celts were tall and blue-eyed. They wore long flowing moustaches but no beards. In their mode of life the British Celts differed little from the Celts tribes of the Gauls who lived on the Continent. In the 1^st century BC they lived in tribes, and were ruled by chiefs whom all the tribesmen obeyed. The chiefs were military leaders and some of them were very powerful. The military leaders of the largest tribes were sometimes called kings and stood at the head of detachments of warriors.

The Celts had no towns; they lived in villages. They were acquainted with the use of copper, tin and iron and they kept large herds of cattle and sheep which formed their chief wealth. They also cultivated crops, especially corn. They used light ploughs as well as hoes, and grew their crops in small, square fields. The Celtic tribes of the Britons who inhabited the south-eastern parts of the island were more civilised than the other tribes. Their clothing was made of wool, woven in many colors while the other Celts wore skins.

Some of the Celtic tribes were quite large and righting was common among them. In war-time the Celts wore skins and painted their faces with a blue dye to make themselves look fierce. They were armed with swords and spears and used chariots on the battle-field.

The Celts believed in another life after death. They were taught by priests called druids that their souls passed after death from one body to another. The druids lived near groves of oak-trees which were considered to be sacred places. No one was allowed to come near without permission. The druids were very important and more powerful than the chiefs. The Celts believed in their magic power. They believed that the druids were able to foretell the future and the druids very often acted as prophets.

1. What monuments can you see in some parts of Britain?

2. Who were the monuments left by?

3. How is the best-known stone-circle named?

4. What is Stonehenge made of?

5. Prove: Stonehenge is still a mystery to scholars.

6. How did we get information about primitive men?

7. What do we know about the Iberians?

8. What do we learn from Caesar’s Commentaries on the Gallic War about: the occupations of the Celts; their arms; their social system?

9. The meaning of the name “Briton “is uncertain; most probably “Briton” is derived from a Phoenician word meaning tin; from a Celtic word for clothes. What facts explain these possible meanings?

10) Prove that the druids were very important and powerful, sometimes, more powerful than the chiefs.

II. Summarize the information on the Celts in seven sentences.