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verbs – глаголы

собственно глагол, его личные и неличные формы

Несклоняемые слова включали междометия, наречия, предлоги и союзы.

Наряду с первой классификацией Суит предложил вторую, которая была основана на синтаксической функции. В ней он выделял 3 группы:

noun words именные слова

существительные
сходные по функционированию именные местоимения
именные числительные
инфинитив
герундий

adjective words адъективные слова

прилагательные
прилагательные-местоимения
прилагательные- числительные
причастия

verbs глаголы

личные и неличные формы глагола

В группе глаголов ведущим признаком является морфологический, поскольку все личные и неличные формы обладают глагольными категориями времени и залога.

Представитель классической школы грамматики Отто Есперсена, (O.Jespersen) датский лингвист, представил в книге «Философия грамматики» в 1958 году свою классификация. В ней предлагается схема из 5 частей речи с учетом признаков формы, функции и значения.

имя существительное
имя прилагательное
местоимение
глагол
частицы

Есперсен предложил анализ классов слов с точки зрения их функционирования в синтаксических сочетаниях (словосочетаниях и предложениях), что получило название теории трех рангов. То или иное слово может являться первичным (primary) т.е. быть ядром словосочетания или предложения, другое слово может являться вторичным (secondary), т.е. непосредственно определяющим первичное, иное слово – третичным (tertiary), т.е. подчиненным вторичному.

a furiously (3)barking (2 ) dog (1)

Есперсен не отвергал традиционное деление на части речи, предлагая деление ссинтаксических позиций, поэтому его теория трех рангов оказалась между морфологией и синтаксисом, хотя она фактически ближе к синтаксису.

Представители дескриптивного направления в зарубежном языкознании середины 20 века (структуалисты) выдвинули новую классификацию частей речи. Их классификация должна была основана на позиции слова в предложении. Ч. Фриз в книге «Структура английского языка» предложил обратить внимание на принадлежность слов к определенным грамматическим разрядам, т.е. частям речи.

Посредством подстановочных таблиц Ч.Фриз выделил 4 традиционно называемых класса слов: 1 - существительное, 2 - глагол, 3 – прилагательное, 4 – наречие.

Материал Фриза содержит интересные данные относительно дистрибуции разряда слов и их синтаксической валентности (сочетаемости).

Лекция 6

Имя существительное. Категории падежа, числа, рода. Лексико-грамматические разряды существительных

Определение. Существительное – это знаменательная часть речи, обладающая семантическим значением предметности, характеризующаяся наличием определенных грамматических категорий и зависимых грамматических значений.

Определение грамматической категории см. в лекции 2.

Грамматическое значение – это обобщенное абстрагированное значение, объединяющее крупные разряды слов и выраженное через свойственные ему формальные показатели. Зависимое грамматическое значение (лексико-грамматическое значение) – это значение, соединяющее лексический состав и грамматическую форму.

Набор беден. У существительных лингвисты выделяют 3: грамматические категории:

категория числа (бесспорно)
категория падежа (спорный вопрос)
категория рода (по морфологическому критерию категория отсутствует)

Категория рода существительных исчезла окончательно к концу среднеанглийского периода, хотя обозначение в английском языке оформляется грамматическими и лексическими способами суффиксами: waiter –waitress, man – doctor – woman – doctor и т.д., или через замену местоимениями, словами: he, she, it; a girl, a boy.( подробно смотри)

Б. Стрэнг, автор книги «Modern English structure», утверждает, что в английском языке есть категория рода существительного и доказывает это на основе субституции существительного местоимением, которое указывает на биологический пол или неодушевленность. Эта позиция не получила поддержки, т.к. во-первых, речь идет о субституции другой частью речи, следовательно, категория рода переносится на другую часть речи, во-вторых, у местоимений данная категория выражена лексически, а не грамматически. Категория рода – спорная категория: категория – это грамматическая форма. выражающая лексико-грамматическое значение, а для выражения принадлежности к определенному полу в английском языке существуют только две грамматические формы: суффиксы – ess, ine

Категория падежа. Существует две позиции, согласно первой – категория падежа есть, согласно второй, ее нет.

В соответствии с первой позицией, в классической научной грамматике имеется 4 подхода к выделению падежей.

1. На основе строгого признака формы различаются 2 падежа:

Общий падеж (The Common case) Г. Суит
Притяжательный падеж (The Possessive case\ Genetive case) Лаут

В английском языке родительный падеж утратил свои функции и стал выражать только значение притяжательности: a boy – a boy’s hat.

2. На основе значения выделяется 5 падежей:

Именительный
Родительный
Дательный
Винительный
Звательный

Есперсен считает выделение данных падежей неправомерным, так как оно проходит по аналогии с латынью, а латинский и английский – разные языки.

На основе синтаксического функционирования имени существительного выделяют 4 падежа:
1. Именительный (Подлежащее)
2. Родительный (Определение)
3. Винительный (Прямое дополнение)
4. Дательный (Косвенное дополнение)
На основе аналитических падежей, в соответствии с которой сочетание существительного с предлогом рассматривается как аналитическая форма, представляющее падежную форму. Согласно данной теории, падежей столько, сколько значений возникает у существительного в сочетании с предлогом. Есперсен подверг критике подобную классификацию, назвав данные словосочетания предложной группой (Noun+ Preposition)

Структуралисты дескриптивного направления, представителем которого является американский лингвист Хомский, предлагают выделить 3 падежа на основе субституции (замены) личным местоимением.

Общий (заменяется личным местоимением в общем падеже)
Объектный (заменяется личным местоимением в объектном падеже)
Притяжательный (заменяется притяжательной формой личного местоимения)

Большинство лингвистов, однако, разделяют позицию Г.Суита (H.Sweet) относительно двух-падежной системы английских существительных. Но в последнее время наблюдаются изменения в позициях исследователей в пользу признания отсутствия категории падежа у английских существительных.

Тенденция отказа от категории падежа связана с отсутствием четких оснований для выделения общего и притяжательного падежей.

Функция существительных в предложении. Существительное выступает в различных функциях в предложении: подлежащего, дополнения, определения, обстоятельства, предикатива (именной части составного именного сказуемого).

Лекция 7

Имя существительное. Категории падежа, числа, рода. Лексико-грамматические разряды существительных

Определение грамматической категории см. в лекции 2.

Набор беден. У существительных лингвисты выделяют 3: грамматические категории:

категория числа (бесспорно)
категория падежа (спорный вопрос)
категория рода (по морфологическому критерию категория отсутствует)

Категория падежа. Существует две позиции, согласно первой – категория падежа есть, согласно второй, ее нет.

В соответствии с первой позицией, в классической научной грамматике имеется 4 подхода к выделению падежей.

1. На основе строгого признака формы различаются 2 падежа:

Общий падеж (The Common case) Г. Суит
Притяжательный падеж (The Possessive case\ Genetive case) Лаут

2. На основе значения выделяется 5 падежей:

Именительный
Родительный
Дательный
Винительный
Звательный

На основе синтаксического функционирования имени существительного выделяют 4 падежа:
1. Именительный (Подлежащее)
2. Родительный (Определение)
3. Винительный (Прямое дополнение)
4. Дательный (Косвенное дополнение)
На основе аналитических падежей, в соответствии с которой сочетание существительного с предлогом рассматривается как аналитическая форма, представляющее падежную форму. Согласно данной теории, падежей столько, сколько значений возникает у существительного в сочетании с предлогом. Есперсен подверг критике подобную классификацию, назвав данные словосочетания предложной группой (Noun+ Preposition)

Общий (заменяется личным местоимением в общем падеже)
Объектный (заменяется личным местоимением в объектном падеже)
Притяжательный (заменяется притяжательной формой личного местоимения)

The kinds of nouns

Nouns are divided into 2 big groups: (1) Proper, (2) Common; the latter are subdivided into 4 subgroups: 1) Class, 2) Collective, 3) Material, 4) Abstract.

A Proper noun is a name given to one particular person or thing, and is not intended to denote more than one person or thing at a time; as James (person). New Testament (book), York (city), France (country).

Note. – The writing of a Proper noun, or of any other kind of noun when it is used as a Proper noun, should be commenced with a capital letter.

A Common class noun denotes no one person or thing in particular, but is common to all persons or things of the same kind; as “man”, “book”, “country”.

Here man does not point out any particular man, such as James, but can be used for any and every man. Book does not point out any particular book, such as the New Testament, but can be used for any and every book. Country does not point out any particular country, such as France, but can be used for any and every country in any part of the world.

A Collective noun denotes a group, collection, or multitude, considered as one complete whole.

For instance, there may be many sheep in a field, but only one flock. Here “sheep” is a Common noun, because it may stand for any and every sheep; but “flock” is a Collective noun, because it stands for all the sheep at once in that field, and not for any one sheep taken separately.

Note 1. – A Collective noun is a peculiar kind of Common noun. Thus “flock” is a Common noun for any number of flocks.

Note 2. – On the difference between a Collective noun and a noun of Multitude.

Collective

Multitude

denote a group of people, animals or things taken as a whole;
are used as singulars;
the predicate is in singular

denote a group of people, animals or things taken as individuals;
are used as plurals;
predicate is in plural

A noun of Material denotes the matter or substance of which certain things are made; as in the following examples:

A cow eats grass. Seeds are grown in soil. Salt is necessary to life. Fish live in water. We cannot live without air. Zinc is less valuable than gold. Mud is soil mixed with water. They live chiefly on rice. That bar is made of iron. Fish I prefer to meat. We had meat with bread and butter. We shall dine on wheat today. Milk is the best of foods. Some men never eat flesh. We can write with ink or with chalk. A black-board is made of wood.

Note. – Sometimes a Common noun-has a Material noun that pairs with it; as ox (Common), beef (Material); sheep (Common), mutton (Material); pig (Common), bacon or ham or pork (Material); deer (Common), venison (Material), tree (Common), timber (Material), etc.

Ex.4. State whether the underlined nouns are collective nouns or nouns of multitude.

My family is now in the country.
It was eleven o'clock before the family were all in bed.
Then one by one the worn out crew were helped on board.
The crew of the ship consists of twenty seven including the captain and his mate.
No one had seen him since and the police were searching for him.
The band were changed and in the gallery already.
And Stilleveld had also been the birth place of a new people who were neither white nor black.
All the peoples throughout the world are anxious for the immediate prohibition of weapons of mass destruction.

Grammatical Categories of the Noun

Grammatical categories of Noun:

Gender
Number
Case

The gender

The Genders. – A noun that denotes a male is of the Masculine gender; one that denotes a female is of the Feminine gender; one that denotes either sex is of the Common gender; one that denotes neither sex, that is, something without life, is of the Neater gender. So the genders of Nouns are four in number:

1. Masculine – males. 3. Common – either sex.

2. Feminine – females. 4. Neuter – neither sex.

The Category of Gender is a grammatical form denoting sex.

Note. – In Old English the gender of a noun was indicated by its form. In Modem English it has become entirely a matter of sex or the absence of sex. This is not gender in the grammatical sense of the term.

The existence of this category is disputable. Some grammarians accept it, others reject it because there are very few grammatical forms to express it: only two suffixes -ine and -ess: hero-heroine; steward-stewardess. It expressed grammatically

(-ess, -ine) and lexically.

Gender is disputable: there are very few grammatical forms to express the idea of sex, there are only two suffixes “ess” (acter – actress) and “ine” (he-ro – heroine), but there are a number of ways to express it lexically.

Masculine and Feminine. – These are distinguished in three different ways:

1. By a Change of Word

Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem.

Bachelor spinster, maid Gander (гусак) goose

Boar (хряк) sow (свинья) Gentleman lady

Boy girl Hart roe, hind

Brother sister (самец оленя) (самка оленя)

Buck doe Horse mare

(самец(оленя,зайца)) (кобыла)

Bull cow Husband wife

Bullock,Steer heifer(телка) King queen

(вол)(бычок) Lord lady

Cock hen Man woman

Colt filly Milter spawner

(жеребенок) (молодая кобыла) (самец рыбы)

Dog bitch, slut Nephew niece

Drake (селезень) duck Ram(баран) ewe(овца)

Drone (трутень) bee Sir madam

Father mother Sire dam

Friar(монах),Monk nun (Ваше Величество)

Gaffer gammer Sloven slut

(старик) (старуха) (лентяй)

Son daughter Stag hind

Uncle aunt (самец оленя (5 лет)) (лань)

Viceroy(наместник) vicereine

2. By a Change of Ending

Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem.

Abbot abbess Emperor empress

Actor actress Founder foundress

Adventurer adventuress Giant giantess

Author authoress God goddess

Conductor conductress Governor governess

Duke (герцог) duchess Heir (наследник) heiress

Host hostess Priest priestess

Hunter huntress Prince princess

Lad lass Prophet prophetess

(мальчик) (проповедник)

Lion lioness Shepherd shepherdess

Manager manageress Songster (певец) songstress

Marquis marchioness Seamster seamstress

['ma:kwis] (портной) (швея,портниха)

Master mistress Steward stewardess

Mayor mayoress Tiger tigress

Murderer murderess Traitor traitress

Negro negress Viscount viscountess

[΄vaikaunt]

Ogre ogress Votary votaress

['əugə] (людоед) (сторонник, почитатель)

Patron patroness Waiter waitress

Poet poetess

Note. – In the word laundress we have an example of a feminine form to which there is now no corresponding masculine.

3 Peculiar Changes of Ending

Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem.

Czar czarina Sultan sultana

Executor executrix Testator testatrix

(палач) (завещатель)

Fox vixen Widower widow

Hero heroine Wizard witch

(колдун)

Spinner spinster

(старый холостяк) (старая дева)

4.. By Placing a Word-morpheme before or after

Masc. Fem. Masc. Fem.

He-goat she-goat Tom-cat pussy-cat

Land-lord land-lady Jack-ass she-ass

Man-servant maid-servant Billy-goat she-goat

Man-doctor woman-doctor Male-elephant female-elephant

Grand-father grand-mother Great-uncle great-aunt

Bride-groom bride Pea-cock pea-hen

Cock-sparrow hen-sparrow

5.Examples of Nouns in the Common gender:

Parent Monarch Fowl(дичь) Elephant

Relation Person Child Camel

Friend Pupil Deer Calf(теленок)

Enemy Orphan Baby Foal(жеребенок, осленок)

Cousin Pig Infant Student

Bird Sheep Servant Teacher

Carol Cohn “Wars, Wimps And Women: Talking Gender And Thinking War”

When I talk about “gender discourse”, I am talking not only about words or language but about a system of meanings, of ways of thinking, images and words that first shape how we experience, understand, and represent ourselves as men and women, but that also do more than dial; they shape many other aspects of our lives and culture. In this symbolic system, human characteristics are dichotomized, divided into pairs of polar opposites that are supposedly mutually exclusive: mind is opposed to body; culture to nature; thought to feeling; logic to intuition; objectivity to subjectivity; aggression to passivity; confrontation to accommodation, abstraction to particularity; public to private; political to personal, ad nauseam. In each case, the first term of the “opposites” is associated with male, the second with female. And in each case, our society values the first over the second…

As gender discourse assigns gender to human characteristics, we can think of the discourse as something we are positioned by. If I say, for example, that a corporation should stop dumping toxic waste because it is damaging the creations of mother earth, (i.e., articulating a valuing and sentimental vision of nature), I am speaking in a manner associated with women, and our cultural discourse of gender positions me as female. As such I am then associated with the whole constellation of traits – irrational, emotional, subjective, and so forth – and I am in the devalued position. If, on the other hand, I say the corporation should stop dumping toxic wastes because I have calculated that it is causing $8.215 billion of damage to eight nonrenewable sources (i.e., using a rational, calculative mode of thought), the discourse positions me as masculine – rational, objective, logical, and so forth – the dominant, valued position.

Gender-free/gender-fair/gender-specific

Gender-free terms do not indicate sex and can be used for either women/girls or men/boys (e.g., teacher, bureaucrat, employee, hiker, operations manager, child, clerk, sales rep, hospital patient, student, grandparent, chief executive officer).

Writing or speech that is gender-fair involves the symmetrical use of gender-specific words (e.g., Ms. Leinwohl/Mr. Kelly, councilwoman/councilman, young man/young woman) and promotes fairness to both sexes in the larger context. To ensure gender-fairness, ask yourself often: Would I write the same thing in the same way about a person of the opposite sex? Would I mind if this were said of me?

If you are describing the behaviour of children on the playground, to be gender-fair you will refer to girls and boys an approximately equal number of times, and you will carefully observe what the children do, and not just assume that only the boys will climb to the top of the jungle gym and that only the girls will play quiet games.

Researchers studying the same baby described its cries as “anger” when they were told it was a boy and as “fear” when they were told it was a girl (cited in Cheris Kramarae, The Voices and Words of Women and Men). We are all victims of our unconscious and most deeply held biases.

Gender-specific words (for example, alderwoman, businessman, altar girl) are neither good nor bad in themselves. However, they need to be used gender-fairly; terms for women and terms for men should be used an approximately equal number of times in contexts that do not discriminate against either of them. One problem with gender-specific words is that they identify and even emphasize a person’s sex when it is not necessary (and is sometimes even objectionable) to do so. Another problem is that they are so seldom used gender-fairly.

Although gender-free terms arc generally preferable, sometimes gender-neutral language obscures the reality of women’s or men’s oppression. Battered spouse implies that men and women are equally battered; this is far from true. Parent is too often taken to mean mother and obscures the fact that more and more fathers are very, much involved in parenting, it is better here to use the gender-specific fathers and mothers or mothers and fathers than the gender-neutral parents.

Generic/pseudogeneric

A generic is an all-purpose word that includes everybody (e.g., workers, people, voters, civilians, elementary school students). Generic pronouns include: we, you, they.

A pseudogeneric is a word that is used as though it includes all people, but that in reality does not. Mankind, forefathers, brotherhood, and alumni are not generic because they leave out women. When used about Americans, immigrants leaves out all those who were here long before the first immigrants. “What a Christian thing to do!” uses Christian as a pseudogeneric for kind or good-Hearted and leaves out all kind, good-hearted people who are not Christians.

Certain generic nouns are often assumed to refer only to men, for example, politicians, physicians, lawyers, voters, legislators, clergy, farmers, colonists, immigrants, slaves, pioneers, settlers, members of the armed forces, judges, taxpayers. References to “settlers, their wives, and children,” or “those clergy permitted to have wives” are pseudogeneric.

In historical context it is particularly damaging for young people to read about settlers and explorers and pioneers as though they were all white men. Our language should describe the accomplishments of the human race in terms of all those who contributed to them.

Sex and gender

An understanding of the difference between sex and gender is critical to the use of bias-free language.

Sex is biological; gender is cultural: our notions of “masculine” tell us how we expect men to behave and our notions of “feminine” tell us how we expect women to behave. Words like womanly/manly, tomboy/sissy, unfeminine/unmasculine have nothing to do with the person’s sex; they are culturally acquired, subjective concepts about character traits and expected behaviors that vary from one place to another, from one individual to another.

Gender describes an individual’s personal, legal, and social status without reference to genetic sex; gender is a subjective cultural attitude. Sex is an objective biological fact. Gender varies according to the culture. Sex is a constant.

The difference between sex and gender is important because much sexist language arises from cultural determinations of what a woman or man “ought” to be. Once a society decides, for example, that to be a man means to hide ones emotions, bring home a paycheck, and be able to discuss football standings while to be a woman means to be soft-spoken, love shopping, babies, and recipes; much of the population becomes a contradiction in terms – unmanly men and unwomanly women. Crying, nagging, gossiping, and shrieking are assumed to be women’s lot; rough-housing, drinking beer, telling dirty jokes, and being unable to find ones socks and keys are laid at men’s collective door. Lists of srereotypes appear silly because very few people fit them. The best way to ensure biased writing and speaking is to describe people as individuals, not as members of a set.

Gender role words

Certain sex-linked words depend (for their meanings) on cultural stereotypes: feminine/masculine, manly/womanly, boyish/girlish, husbandly/ wifely, fatherly/motherly, unfeminine/unmasculine, unmanly/unwo-manly, etc. What a person understands by these words will vary from culture to culture and even within a culture. Because the words depend (for their meanings) on interpretations of stereotypical behavior or characteristics, they may be grossly inaccurate when applied to individuals. Somewhere, sometime, men and women have said, thought, or done everything the other sex has said, thought, or done except for a very few sex-linked biological activities (e.g., only women can give birth or nurse a baby). To describe a woman as unwomanly is a contradiction in terms; if a woman is doing it, saying it, wearing it, thinking it, it must be – by definition – womanly.

F. Scott Fitzgerald did not use “feminine” to describe the unforgettable Daisy in The Great Gatsby. He wrote instead, “She laughed again, as if she said something very witty, and held my hand for a moment, looking up into my face, promising that there was no one in the world she so much wanted to see. That was a way she had.” Daisy’s charm did not belong to Woman; it was uniquely hers. Replacing vague sex-linked descriptors with thoughtful words that describe an individual instead of a member of a set can lead to language that touches people’s minds and hearts.

Categories of the Noun the number

Singular and Plural. – When you speak of one thing at a time, the noun that you use is in the Singular number; as “a cow”.

When you speak of more than one thing at a time, the noun that you use is in the Plural number; as “cows”.

How Plurals are formed. – The main rules are:

1) Add “s” to the Singular. This is the general rule.

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Cow cows Town towns

Boy boys Star stars

Bird birds Flea fleas

But there are some specific rules:

2) Add “es” to the Singular, if you find that you cannot pronounce the “s” without the help of “e”:

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Glass glass-es Brush brush-es

Box box-es Branch branch-es

Kiss kiss-es Porch porch-es

Note. – If the Singular ends with a silent “e”, the e is dropped before the “es” of the Plural:

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

House hous-es Size siz-es

Page pag-es Bridge bridg-es

Face fac-es Nose nos-es

Cause caus-es Horse hors-es

3) Nouns ending in “-y”:

a) If the Singular ends in “-y”, and the “-у” is preceded by a consonant, change “у” into “ies”:

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Fly flies Army armies

Cry cries Penny pennies, pence

b) If the Singular ends in “ay”, “ey”, or “oy” (i.e. if the “у” is preceded by a vowel, and not by a consonant), simply add “s” and make no change in the “у”:

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Day days Ray rays

Boy boys Monkey monkey

c) Proper nouns in “-y” never change their form:

Singular. Plural

Mary Marys

4) Nouns ending in “-f / fe”:

a) If the Singular ends in “f / fe”, change the “f / fe” into “ves”:

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Wife wives Loaf loaves

Wolf wolves Thief thieves

b) But there are at least fourteen Singular nouns ending in “f / fe”, which form the Plural by simply adding “s” to the Singular.

Singular. Plural Singular. Plural.

Chief chiefs Proof proofs

Roof roofs Strife strifes

Reef reefs Dwarf dwarfs

Gulf gulfs Grief griefs

c) Some of these, however, for example, hoof, staff, scarf, turf, and wharf, sometimes form the Plural in “ves”.

Singular. Plural Singular. Plural.

Chief chiefs Proof proofs

Roof roofs Strife strifes

Hoof hoofs, hooves Fife fifes

Turf turfs, turves Reef reefs

Dwarf dwarfs Scarf scarfs, scarves

Gulf gulfs Wharf wharfs, wharves

Grief griefs Staff staffs, staves

5) Nouns ending in “-o”:

a) If the Singular ends in “o”, and the “о” is preceded by a consonant, add “es”, not “s”, to the Singular:

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Cargo cargoes Volcano volcanoes

Hero heroes Potato potatoes

Buffalo buffaloes Echo echoes

Motto mottoes Negro negroes

b) The following are exceptions: grotto, grottos; halo, halos; memento, mementos; proviso, provisos; tiro, tiros; piano, pianos; canto, cantos; solo, solos. No reason can be given to justify this troublesome distinction.

c) If the “о” is preceded by a vowel, the Plural is formed by simply adding “s” to the singular, as: folio, folios; cameo, cameos.

6) Compound nouns:

a) “s / es” is added to the noun in Singular (to the last element):

Singular. Plural.

Girlfriend girlfriends

Step-son step-sons

Maid-servant maid-servants

Foot-man foot-men

Some nouns add “s” to the head element:

Singular. Plural.

Son-in-law sons-in-law

Man-of-war men-of-war

Court-martial courts-martial

Commander-in-chief commanders-in-chief

Hanger-on hangers-on

Maid-of- honour maids-of-honour

c) Nouns in which is difficult to define the stem, add “s” in the plural form at the end (to the final element)

Singular. Plural.

Forget-me-not forget-me-nots

Merry-go-round merry-go-rounds

d) The formation of nouns ending in “full / ful”:

Singular. Plural.

Handful handfuls

Spoonful spoonfuls

Columnful columnfuls

But also:

column-full columns-full

e) Adjectivized nouns are always singular, even though their meaning is plural: a three-storey building, a four-act play, a ten-year-old boy. But also: 20-years difference in age.

Exceptional Plurals

(7) There are eight nouns that form the Plural by changing the inside vowel of the Singular:

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Man men Goose geese

Woman women Tooth teeth

Foot feet Mouse mice

Louse lice Dormouse dormice

(8) There are four nouns, that make the Plural terminate in “en” or “ne”:

Singular. Plural. Singular Plural.

Ox oxen Child children

Cow kine (or cows) Brother brethren (по духу)

brothers (по крови)

(9) There are a few nouns that have the same form for the Plural as for the Singular:

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural.

Deer deer Trout trout

Sheep sheep Cod cod

Fish fish Brace brace

Swine swine Dozen dozen

Grouse grouse Score score

Salmon salmon Stone stone

(weight)

(10) Some nouns have no Singular:

Annals Gallows Pincers Victuals

Bellows Statistics Scissors Tidings

Tongs Suds Shambles News

Shears Nuptials Thanks Means

In spite of the Plural form we say, “By this means”, “This news is not true”.

Note. – Nouns “earth”, “sun” etc., have no Plural, because in nature there is only one earth and only one sun.

Ex. I Write the plurals of the nouns and explain them.

Stimulus, Russian, Dutchman, Englishwoman, neucleus, fish, crisis, looker-on, on looker, cuff, rifleman, tooth, commander-in-chief, muff, foot, boot, mouth, sheep ship, cheese, Burmese, deer, goose, swine, analysis, criterion, series, corps, fruit, datum, thesis, radius, trout, phenomenon, room-mate, species, fellow-worker, basis, apparatus, tie, handkerchief, portfolio, zero, roof, enemy, solo, stimulus, leaf, youth, court-martial, ditto, merry-go-round, stratum, salmon, formula, memorandum, scarf, handful, Mary.

Ex. 2. Explain the difference of meaning of the following double plurals:

1 . brothers 1. geniuses

b rother genius

2. Brethren 2. genii

1 . pennies 1. staffs

p enny staff

2. pence 2. Staves

1 . cloths 1. indexes

c loth index

2. clothes 2. indices

Ex. 3. In the following exercises – (1) pick out all the nouns; (2) say whether each noun is Singular or Plural as it stands; (3) change every Plural into a Singular, and every Singular into a Plural:

There are many cities in England, many smaller towns, and an immense number of villages.
A cat and a dog are seldom good friends.
The earth turns round once in one day and one night.
When the cat is away, the mice play.
The branch of that tree has leaves of a bright green colour.
The cries of animals are many and various: a horse neighs; a dog barks; a cat mews; a swine or pig grunts; an elephant trumpets; an ass brays; an ox lows; a monkey chatters; a goose cackles; a boy laughs or weeps; a fish is silent.
If we stop in this wood, we shall be lost. So let us get back into the public road, before night comes on.
The wolf living in that forest killed many calves.
Some thieves broke into the house of my friend.
The stars are seen through the leaves and branches of that oak-tree. He went out fishing for salmon, and caught two dozen and more in his net, besides some trout to the number of two or three score.
Sheep cannot run as fast as deer; and so the sheep were caught first by the wolves.
The cat has caught two mice and one rat today.
Oxen are of more value than deer to a farmer.
The feet of men are larger than those of women; but the teeth are about the same in size.
The sun’s light is brighter than the moon’s; but the moon’s rays are not so hot as those of the sun.
Joseph had eleven brethren who sold him as a slave to some merchants on their way to Egypt.
A valley is usually hotter than the top of a hill.
He is a big man, and weighs fourteen stone.

Дополнительный материал по теме “The category of number” изложен в учебном пособии “I Love English Grammar” Л.Д. Червяковой (раздел “Subject – verb agreement” пункты 8, 14, 15, 16, 17, 19).

Peculiar plurals: origin and uses

Man, men, etc. The eight Plurals are called Mutation-plurals, because they are formed by a change or mutation of the inside vowel of the singular. Once there were many more such plurals than there are now. The original plural of man was “mann-is”. The “i” in the ending -is had the effect of changing the a of mann or man into a sound more like itself; thus mann-is became menn-is. The effect of “i” in thus changing the preceding vowel is called Vowel-mutation in English and Umlaut in German. When the -is was dropped, nothing but the vowel-change was left to distinguish the Plural from the Singular. This Mutation-method became obsolete when the Anglo-Saxon system of grammar decayed.

Ox, oxen, etc. The four Plurals are formed by a process that is now as obsolete as that of vowel-mutation. In Old English -an (now written -en) was not as common as a then Plural ending -as (now written -es or -s). But -as or -es became much more common when the decay of Anglo-Saxon was setting in. Afterwards, when French influence had begun to work (about 200 years after the Norman Conquest), the French Plural in -s helped to drive the nail home, so that -s or -es became eventually the sign of the Plural for almost all our nouns.

Foreign Plurals. We have some Plurals which have been borrowed direct from foreign nouns:

Latin Plurals: from -urn (sing.) to -a (plur.); addend-a, agend-a, dat-a, errat-a, strat-a, memorand-a (or memorand-ums); from -us (sing.) to -i (plur.); alumn-i, fung-i, radi-i, geni-i (or genius-es). Other Latin Plurals are: genera (genus), stamina (stamen), indices (index), series (series), species (species), apparatus (apparatus).

Greek Plurals: from -is (sing.) to -es (plur.): analyses, bases, hypotheses, parentheses, oases; from -on (sing.) to -a (plur.): phenomen-a, criteri-a.

Italian Plurals: banditti (or bandits), dilettanti.

French Plurals: beaux, bureaux, chateaux, messieurs, mesdames.

Hebrew Plurals: cherubim (or cherubs), seraphim (or seraphs).

Nouns of Multitude. These are a kind of Collective nouns which have a plural sense, though they remain singular in form.

The poultry (= fowls) are doing well. These cattle

(= cows) are mine. These vermin (= insects, etc.) do much harm. These people (= persons) have returned home. (People, when preceded by a or used in the Plural number, as “a people”, “peoples”, signifies “nation”).

Some nouns, which take a Plural at ordinary times, use the Singular instead of the Plural to express some specific quantity or number: A twelve-month period. A three-foot rule. An eight-day clock. A six-year-old horse. A fort-night (contraction of “fourteen-night”). Forty head of cattle. Twelve pound weight. Ten sail of the line. A six-penny piece.

Note. – Six-pence has a Collective sense denoting a single coin, which makes the noun appear to be Singular, so that we say a sixpence (Singular), sixpences (Plural). The latter is really a double Plural, the “ce” being a substitute for “s”.

Two forms of Plural, each with a separate meaning:

Brothers, sons of the same mother,

Brother

Brethren, members of the same society.

Cherubim, angels of a certain rank.

Cherub

Cherubs, images or models of a cherub.

Cloths, kinds or pieces of cloth (Distributive).

Cloth

Clothes, articles of dress (Collective).

Cows, There is no real difference, except that kine

Cow

Kine, has now become archaic.

Dies, stamps for coining (Distributive).

Die

Dice, small cubes used in games (Collective).

Folk, men or persons, as “the old folk”.

Folk

Folks, nations (obsolete or very rare).

Geniuses, men of genius or talent.

Genius

Genii, fabulous spirits of the air.

Indexes, tables of contents.

Index

Indices, signs used in algebra.

Peas, Common Noun, as “the pod contained 9pea”

Pea

Pease, Material Noun, as “pease pudding”.

Pennies, penny-pieces (Distributive).

Penny

Pence, (Collective), as in “sixpence”.

Staves, sticks or poles,

Staff

Staffs, departments in the army,

Stamens, male organs of flowers.

Stamen

Stamina, endurance, vigour, lit. threads.

Shot, little balls discharged from a gun.

Shot

Shots, discharges; as, “He had two shots”

Different senses of Singular and Plural:

Singular Plural.

Advice, counsel. Advices, information.

Air, atmosphere. Airs, demeanour.

Ban, a course (under a ban) Banns,announcements

(banns of marriage)

Beef, flesh of ox Beeves,cattle,bulls and cows.

Compass, range or extend. Compasses, instruments.

Copper, a metal. Coppers, pennies, pence.

Domino, a cape with a hood Dominoes, the game so-called.

Forces, strength or energy. Forces, army.

Good, benefit. Goods, movable property.

Iron, a metal Irons, fetters made of iron

Physic, medecine. Physics, natural science.

Return, coming back. Returns, statistics.

Salt, seasoning substance. Salts, smelling salts.

Sand, pulverised rock. Sands, a tract of sandy land.

Vapour, invisible steam. Vapours, dejection, low spirits.

Vesper, evening. Vespers, evening prayers.

Waters, the element Waters, springs, masses of water, etc

Two meanings in the Plural against one in the Singular:

Singular. Plural.

Colour Colour Colours 1. Kinds of

colour

2. Flag of

regiment

Custom Habit Custom 1. Habit

2. Toll or tax.

Element Simple substance Elements 1.Simple

substances.

2. Rudiments of

first principles

of a subject.

Effect Result Effects 1. Results.

2. Goods and

chat tel(s).

Letter 1. Of alphabet Letters 1. Of alphabet.

2. Epistle 2. Epistles.

3. Literature.

Manner Mode or way Manners 1.Modes, ways.

2.Behaviour

Number As in counting Numbers 1.As in counting

2. Poetry.

Pain Suffering Pains 1. Suffering

2Trouble, care.

Part Portion Part 1. Portion

2. Abilities.

Premise A statement or proposition Premises 1.Propositions.

2. Buildings.

Quarter A fourth part Quarter 1.Fourth parts.

2. Lodgings.

Spectacle Anything seen Spectacle 1.Things seen.

2. Eyeglasses.

Two meanings in the Singular against one in the Plural:

Singular. Plural.

Abuse Wrong uses Abuses Wrong uses

Reproaches

Foot Parts of body Feet Parts of body

Infantry

Horse Quadruped Horses Quadrupeds

Cavalry

Issue Result Issues Results

Offspring

Light Lamp Lights Lamps

Radiance

People Nation Peoples Nations

Persons

Powder Medicinal mixture Powders Medicinal

Gunpowder mixtures

Practice Habitual act Practices Habitual acts

Professional connection

Stone Piece of rock Stones Pieces of rock

Fourteen pounds

Wood A forest Woods Forests

Timber

True Singulars used as Plurals. – By a “True Singular” we mean that the final “s” is part of the original Singular noun, and not a sign of the Plural.

Such nouns, though Singular by etymology, are liable to be considered Plural on account of the final “s”; and all except the first of these named below are now always used as if they were Plural.

Summons (Fr. semonce). – This noun is still correctly used as a Singular; as “I received a summons to attend”; “This summons reached me to-day.” The plural form is summonses.

Alms (A.S. selmesse). – “He asked an alms” (New Testament). But now the word is generally used as if it were Plural; as, “I gave alms to the beggar, and for these he thanked me.”

Eaves (A.S. efese). – The edge or lower borders of the roof of a house. The word is now always used as a Plural; as, “The eaves are not yet finished.”

Riches (Fr. Richesse). – This too is really a Singular; as, “In one hour is so great riches come to naught (New Testament); but now, on account of the final s, this noun is always used as a Plural; as, “Riches do not last for ever.”

Cherries (Mid. Eng. cheris): cf. Latin, ceras-us, – The s looked so like a Plural ending, that a Singular cherry was coined.

Peas (A.S. pis-a. Singular). – When the a was lost, the final s looked like a Plural; so a Singular pea was coined; “The vaunting poets found nought worth a pease”. – spencer. “Of the bigness of a great peaze. – raleigh, Hist. World (Spelt with a 2 by Raleigh, because it was so pronounced).

True Plurals used as Singulars. – In such nouns the final s is really a sign of the Plural:

Amends. – This is sometimes used as a Singular and sometimes as a Plural: as, “An honourable amends” (ADDISON).

Means. – This is now almost always used as a Singular; as, “By this means”.

News. – This is now almost always used as a Singular; as, “Ill news runs apace.” Mid. Eng. new-es (plural); French nouvelles.

Innings. – This is a word used in cricket to denote the turn for going in and using the bat. It is always used as a Singular; as, “We have not yet had an innings”; “Oureleven beat the other by an innings and ten runs.”

Gallows. – The framework from which criminals are hanged. This noun is used as a Singular; as, “They fixed up a gallows.”

Odds. – A word used in betting to denote the difference of one wager against another. “We gave him a heavy odds against ourselves.”

Sledge. – A respelling of sleds, plural of sled, which is still used in Canada for “sledge”. This is always used as Singular: “A sledge (сани, они) is sliding down the slope”.

Лекция 8

In grammar, the genitive case or possessive case (also called the second case) is the case that marks a noun as modifying another noun. It often marks a noun as being the possessor of another noun but it can also indicate various relationships other than possession; certain verbs may take arguments in the genitive case; and it may have adverbial uses (see Adverbial genitive). Modern English does not typically mark nouns for a genitive case morphologically — rather, it uses the apostrophe's or a preposition (usually of) — but the personal pronouns do have distinct possessive forms.

Depending on the language, specific varieties of genitive-noun-main-noun relationships may include:

possession (see Possessive case):

inalienable possession ("Janet's height", "Janet's existence", "Janet's long fingers")

alienable possession ("Janet's jacket", "Janet's drink")

relationship indicated by the noun being modified ("Janet's husband")

composition (see Partitive case):

substance ("a wheel of cheese")

elements ("a group of men")

source ("a portion of the food")

participation in an action:

as an agent ("my leaving") — this is called the subjective genitive

as a patient ("the archduke's murder") — this is called the objective genitive

origin ("men of Rome")

reference ("Of the Gaulish War")

description ("man of honour", "day of reckoning")

compounds (Scottish Gaelic "ball coise" = "football", where "coise" = gen. of "cas", "foot")

Depending on the language, some of the relationships mentioned above have their own distinct cases different from the genitive.

Possessive pronouns are distinct pronouns, found in Indo-European languages such as English, that function like pronouns inflected in the genitive. They are considered separate pronouns if contrasting to languages where pronouns are regularly inflected in the genitive. For example, English my is either a separate possessive adjective or an irregular genitive of I, while in Finnish, for example, minun is regularly agglutinated from minu- "I" and -n (genitive).

In some languages, nouns in the genitive case also agree in case with the nouns they modify (that is, it is marked for two cases). This phenomenon is called suffixaufnahme.

In some languages, nouns in the genitive case may be found in inclusio — that is, between the main noun's article and the noun itself.

Many languages have a genitive case, including Arabic, Armenian, Basque , Czech, Finnish, Georgian, German, Greek, Icelandic, Irish, Latin, Latvian, Polish, Romanian, Russian, Sanskrit, Bosnian, Serbian, Croatian, Slovenian and Turkish. English does not have a proper genitive case, but a possessive ending, -'s (see below), although pronouns do have a genitive case.

The English -'s ending

Non positive marker

Some argue that it is a common misconception that English nouns have a genitive case, marked by the particle that is always pronounced as part of the preceding word. This is claimed on the basis of the following sort of example: "The king of Sparta's wife was called Helen." If the English -'s were a genitive case mark, then the wife would belong to Sparta; but the -'s attaches not to the word Sparta, but to the entire phrase the king of Sparta.

Despite the above, the English possessive did originate in a genitive case. In Old English, a common singular genitive ending was -es. The apostrophe in the modern possessive marker is in fact an indicator of the e that is "missing" from the Old English morphology.

The use of an independently written particle for the possessive can be seen in the closely related Dutch language: de man z'n hand (the man's hand, z'n, short for zijn, means his).

The 18th century explanation that the apostrophe might replace a genitive pronoun, as in "the king's horse" being a shortened form of "the king, his horse", is debated. This his genitive appears in English only for a relatively brief time. The construction occurs in southern German dialects and has replaced the genitive there, together with the "of construction that also exists in English. While modern English speakers might expect that plurals and feminine nouns would form possessives using '-r', such as "*The queen'r children", in fact "his" or "hys" could be used for speakers and writers of either gender throughout most of the medieval and Renaissance period.

Remnants of the genitive case remain in Modern English in a few pronouns, such as whose (the genitive form of who), my/mine, his/her/hers/its, our/ours, their/theirs, etc. See also declension in English.

Uses of the marker in English

The English construction in -'s has various uses other than a possessive marker. Most of these uses overlap with a complement marked by 'of (the music of Beethoven or Beethoven's music), but the two constructions are not equivalent. The use of -'s in a non-possessive sense is more prevalent, and less restricted, in formal than informal language.

Genitive of origin; subjective genitive

Beethoven's music

Fred Astaire's dancing

Confucius's teaching

In these constructions, the marker indicates the origin or source of the head noun of the phrase, rather than possession per se. Most of these phrases, however, can still be paraphrased with of: the music of Beethoven, the teaching of Jesus.

Objective genitive; classifying genitive

the Hundred Years' War

a dollar's worth

two weeks' notice

speech of an appropriate tone

A Midsummer Night's Dream

a man's world

runner's high

the Teachers' Lounge

In these constructions, the marker serves to specify, delimit, or describe the head noun. The paraphrase with of is often un-idiomatic or ambiguous with these genitives:

They introduce the likelihood of misunderstanding.

Genitive of purpose

women's shoes

children's literature

Here, the marked noun identifies the purpose or intended recipient of the head noun. Of cannot paraphrase them; they can be idiomatically paraphrased with for: shoes for women.

Appositive genitive

Dublin's fair city

This is not a common usage. The more usual expression is the fair city of Dublin.

Double genitive

that hard heart of thine ("Venus and Adonis" line 500)

this extreme exactness of his ("Tristram Shandy", chapter l.IV)

Any Friend of Nicholas Nickleby's is a Friend of Mine

a picture of the king's (that is, a picture owned by the king, as distinguished from a picture of the king, one in which the king is portrayed)

Some writers regard this as a questionable usage, although it has a history in careful English. Some object to the name, as the "of clause is not a genitive. Alternative names are "double possessive" and "oblique genitive". The Oxford English Dictionary says that this usage was "Originally partitive, but subseq. ... simple possessive ... or as equivalent to an appositive phrase

Adverbial genitive

The ending "-s" without the apostrophe, to form an adverb of time, is considered to be a remnant of an Old English genitive, and there is a "literary" periphrastic form.

closed Sundays

of a summer day

The case

Ex.1. Replace the of-phrase:

а) 1. The knife of ours.

2. The order of the commander-in-chief.

3. The house of mister Fox.

4. The novels of Dickens.

5. The ball of the boys.

6. The life of a bachelor.

7. The works of Marx.

8. The dress of a lady.

9. A meeting of students.

10. The flat of my mother-in-law.

11. The right of women.

b) 1. A distance of two miles.

2. The crew of the ship.

3. The theatres of Hanoi.

4. An interval of three hours.

5. The oil déposits of the world.

6. The rays of the sun.

7. The population of England.

8. The joys of life.

9. For the sake of convenience.

c) 1. The mother of Mary and Ann.

2. The fathers of Peter and John.

3. The poems of Byron and Shelley.

4. The children of my sister Irene.

5. The speech of the Minister of Foreign Affairs.

6. The times of Peter the Great.

Ex.2. Comment on the use of the Possessive Case in the following sentences:

Agnes was at her wit’s end.
Since his illness, however, he had abandoned this attempt to get twenty-four hours’ work out of each day.
The Radicals’ real supporters were the urban classes.
For his honour’s sake Tom was ready to commit suicide.
They were to leave the house without an instant's delay and go at once to the river’s edge.
And he lifted his strange lowering eyes to Derek’s.
“Where are the children?” “I sent them to mother’s.”
Presently Rex was on his two miles’ walk to Oxford.
Bowen sat on the veranda of Buckmaster’s house.
Crime is the product of a country’s social order.
I spotted the bride’s father’s uncle’s silk hat on the seat of a straight chair across the room.
I spent Christmas at my aunt Emily’s.
He was still thinking of the next morning’s papers.
A man stepped out from a tobacconist’s and waved to them.
The wooden slopes came down to the water’s edge.
And the wind’s rustle was so gentle.
The Browns’ little house was dark.
Constance had put on a dress of black silk with a brooch of her mother’s for the tea hour.
He was determined to solve the meaning of Joe and Peg’s visit.
The pudding was of aunt Julia’s making.
He had anticipated much pleasure in this afternoon’s reading, under the quiet roof of his greataunt’s house.
And so she came to James’s.
The men finished their day’s work and went away.
Everybody drank to everybody else’s happiness.
After an hour or so’s break the committee resumed their work.
Bert Templeton leaned on the ship’s rail.
She dreamed of Italy’s museums and the world’s great art-centres.

Ex.3. Put the noun in brackets in the Possessive Case:

The breakfast table at – was usually a very pleasant one, and was always presided over by Bella (Mr.Boffin).
I think – friendships are much deeper than – Mrs. Thompson said (men,women).
That night he had chosen a basement bar a – throw from Scotland yard (stone).
As he passed through the – room he saw an evening paper spread out conspicuously on the desk of the – nephew (clerk, director).
He stayed for dinner that evening and much to – satisfaction made a favourable impression on her father (Ruth).
He said to her: “Look at my brother – property” (James).
Benson was listening among the – representation cocking his head on the side (workers).
He had never thought that a – hand could be sweetly soft (woman).
But by that time the bride was near the end of the first – journey towards Florence (day).
He too wished she had remained at home, as did most of the – families (congressmen).
You need a good – sleep (night).
Haven’t you noticed that other – bread-and-butter is always much nicer than your own? Robert is like that. He always prefers – fireside (people, somebody else).
The – wives were more expensively dressed than the civil – and in general more spectacular (politicians, servants).
One evening on the way to the – I saw Irving sitting on the steps of his house (grocer).
I cannot be blamed for all my – doings (kin).

Ex.4. Replace the Possessive Case by a prepositional group where possible:

The only thing that stood out clearly was his parents’ house.
Nobody could explain the young girl’s behaviour at yesterday’s dinner.
The boy got his first week’s salary and looked very proud.
You don’t object to the speaker’s proposal, do you?
We found the boy looking through a children’s magazine
After an hour or so’s break the committee resumed their work.
In those days for economy’s sake he lived, in a little town.
There was a moment’s silence between them.
It was a typical student’s mistake.
The morning’s mail brought me a surprise in the shape of a letter.
They are the same author’s books.

Ex.5. Replace the prepositional groups by the Possessive Case where possible:

The teacher drew the attention of the students to the peculiarity of the style of the author.
Before I could say a word, the sound of carriage wheels was heard.
The girl was nicely dressed for the ceremony of the evening.
He did not want to hurt the feelings of the girl.
There was a spot of ink on the table cloth.
I spent a fortnight in the house of my friend.
The pursuit of the enemy stopped only at nightfall.
There was a great variety of books for children on display.
I could not agree with the interpretation of the piece by the conductor.
We visited the village of Mikhailovskoye where Pushkin, the great poet of Russia, lived in exile.
Never shall I forget those words of my father.
We could not tear our eyes off the hands of the pianist.
We could not tear our eyes off his long-fingered hands, the hands of a pianist.
The river was at a distance of a mile and a half from the camp.
She contributes to a magazine for women.

Ex.6. Insert ’; s; ’s or s’ instead of the hyphens where necessary:

This is a new edition of Dickens – novels.
That man was Tom - and Nelly – old teacher – of music.
Those were Nick – and Kate – parents.
We spent a week – holiday at the Barton – .
The book is neither John – nor Mary – .
It was neither John – nor Mary – .
I haven’t touched a single book of John – .
Father took some money out of his pocket and put it into my younger brother –.
Father took some money out of his pocket and gave it to my younger brother –.
His eyes narrowed like a cat – .
He moved around softly like a cat – .
The wall – in the hunter – club were decorated with mountain goat – and deer – horn – .
A great many scientist – took part in the First International Geophysical Year.
Many a time did he rewrite some of his novel – chapter – before submitting it to the reader – judgment.

Лекция 9

The Verb

As a matter of fact the verb is “the most complex (and capacious) part of speech^⁴²”. The intricate nature of the English verb is quite vivid as it includes, as if in miniature, some other parts of speech in the shape of the so called non-finite verbs, or verbals (or verbids^⁴³). The various forms, that a verb can take, fall under the main divisions: finite and non finite (verbals). The finites can further be subdivided into three systems called moods. And verbals in their turn can also be subdivided into three systems: the infinitive, the gerund, the participle.

So, first we’ll begin with the properties that characterize the verb as a whole. It has the following properties:

1) Verbs name actions, states, and process. That is their lexico-grammatical meaning.

Eg: She is singing (process).

It is written (state).

We shall leave (action).

The lexico-grammatical meaning is expressed by typical stem-building elements, such as the suffixes: ize, - en, - fy; prefixes: re-, under-, over-, out-, super-, mis-, un-; the lexico-grammatical word-morphemes: up, m, off, down, out etc.

2) The verb has 7 grammatical categories: number, person, tense, aspect, voice, mood, order. Out of the categories of the verb system three are found not only the finite verbs, but in non – finite verbs (verbals: the infinitive, the gerund, the participle) as well. Two of them, voice (asks, is asked and order (asks -has asked, to ask - to have asked, asking - having asked) are found in all the verbals, and the third – aspect (asks – is asking, to ask – to be asking) is found in the infinitive.

The Category of Number shows whether the action is associated with one agent of the action or with more than one. Accordingly, it denotes smth. essentially different from what is indicated by the number of nouns. If we say “She goes to the library three times a day”, it doesn’t indicate a single going, but a single (doer) agent

Eg: am reading (is eating) – 1 agent.

are reading (eating) – more than one.

Some verbs don’t distinguish number at all because of the perculiar development (can, must); others are but rarely used in the singular because the meanings of “oneness”is hardly compatible with their lexical meanings;

Eg: to crowd, to conspire (устраивать заговор)

So, the number is a means for expressing syntactical relations.

The agent can be a person speaking or smb else. So, the verb has the category of person. The process naturally takes place at a certain time. So, the verb has the category of tense.

The verb has forms which show the direction of action. A process may have forms of the direction of action, so we say the verb has the category of voice.

The process may stand in different relations to reality as a fact, urge, probability, so, we say the verb has the category of mood.

The action can progress in different ways, so, we say the verb has the category of aspect.

3) Its characteristic combinability; a verb can be associated with nouns denoting the doer of the action expressed by the verb; it is regularly modified by adverbs. The process is dependent on an agent (the agent can be one or more than one).

Eg: We went on going in for sports. A girl playing…, the cat walking on the road.

4) The syntactical function of the verb depends on whether the verb is finite or non-finite. The verbals are: the infinitive, the participle, and the gerund. Finite verbs are always predicates, non-finitite verbs can be in any functions, but never predicates: they do not combine with the subject in person and number: a subject – it is dangerous to smoke, to smoke (smoking) is dangerous.

a predicative – the task is to study (studying)

an attribute – the book to read, idea of going

an object – like to read, insist on going

adverbial modifiers – I hate discovering…, he comes here to study, they left without saying good-bye.

The verb can be modified by an adverb. And if it is transitive, it can take a direct object.

Classifications of the Verb.

Verbs can be classified by meaning, form, and function

1. Morphological classification (the classification by forms).

The verb forms of the past tense or the past participle (regular or irregular verbs) are built by means of suffixation or by means of sound-interchange. Sound-interchange is more productive way (to feed – fed – fed) than the change of stress (export – to export, record - to record). The most productive way of forming verb lexemes is conversion: (a book – to book, a lock - to lock). Composition is of low productivity in the class of verbs.

In accordance with their stem-structure verbs, like other parts of speech, fall under the following groups

– Simple verbs (live, hate, know, love)

– Derived verbs (rewrite, organise, overestimate, underestimate)

– Compound blackmail, kidnap.

2. Semantic classification ( the classification by meaning).

According to this classification, according to the character of lexical meaning, the verbs may be classified into:

a) notional which mean verbs possessing an independent individual meaning;

b) auxiliary verbs which have no lexical meaning and only help to form analytical forms of the verb (to be, to have, shall, will);

c) Semi-auxiliary verbs possessing a generalized meaning; they include: link-verbs (remain, get, become); aspective verbs (begin, start – stop, finish); modal verbs (must, ought, should, can may); group verbs (to lose sight of, to put on weight, to lose weight).

A semi-auxiliary verb has no independent function in the sentence. It is used as part of a predicate (nominal or verbal). The main lexical meaning is comprised in the second element of the predicative which is expressed by a noun, adjective or verbal. However, a semi-auxiliary verb has an important syntactical function: it is used in a finite form and expresses the predicative categories of person, number, mood, tense. It may be used as a link verb and as part of a compound verbal or nominal predicate.

Eg: She didn’t seem to be tired. (auxiliary and link verb)

It was growing (getting) dark outside (link verb)

Eg: He must have seen her. (compound verbal predicate)

I can carry it quite easily. (compound verbal predicate)

Semi-auxiliary verbs such as modal verbs besides their primary meaning have generalized meaning. Group verbs contain a verb as the first element and a noun or an adjective as the second part: to lose sight (weight), to put on weight, to get angry.

The meaning of the verb is very vague here, very close to auxiliary as the first element loses its meaning.

3) The classification into subjective and objective verbs.

In this respect verbs are classified according to the lexical meaning and the syntactical setting. “A verb which denotes an action associated only with its subject is called a subjective verb^⁴⁴”. All subjective verbs are intransitive and have no category of voice. Subjective verbs name actions the realization of which depends only on the agent.

Eg: Florence came in and sat down on a chair by the window.

Objective verbs express an action connected not only with their subjects but also with objects. Objective verbs may be transitive and intransitive.

Eg: I’ve just received a letter from my sister.

Look after yourself.

Objective verbs name actions which depend on 2 things:

– the agent and

– the object of the action

Eg: to take, to give, to make, to throw, to read.

As objective verbs may be transitive, they have the category of voice. As the English verb is poly-semantic, you can find cases when the verbs may be subjective in one meaning and objective in another one.

Eg: He walked very slowly. (subjective)

He walked his dog up and down the beech. (objective)

4) Classification into terminative and durative verbs.

According to their lexical character verbs in English may be classified into two groups: terminative (предельные) and durative (непредельные). A terminative verb express an action which has a final aim in view, a certain limit beyond which the action can not be continued. For instance, the final aim of the action expressed by the verb to close is to have something closed; after you have closed it you can’t go on closing – this is the limit beyond which the action of the verb to close doesn’t go. To the class of terminative verbs belong such verbs as to close, to open, to come, to build, to settle, to find, to lose and compound verbs such as to sit down, to stand up, to speak up, to throw, to jump up, to drop and etc. A terminative verb may be used in both aspects common and continuous. A durative verb expresses an action the action of which cannot be continued. To the class of durative verbs belong such verbs as: to like, to love, to hate, to detest (ненавидеть), to move, to work, to wish, to watch, to shine, to smoke.

Eg: “Mr Grath lived in a noisy narrow road of cracked terrace houses”.

Besides the two main groups there exist an extensive group of verbs of a mixed (or double) character (terminative and durative).

Verbs of a mixed (or double) lexical character are such verbs which may have durative meaning in one context and terminative meaning in another.

To this class belong such verbs as: to sit, to stand, to kneel, to know, to remember and etc.

Eg: He had never particularly known him.

The Category of Person

The category of person in the Indo-European languages serves to present an action as associated by the speaking person with himself (or a group of persons including the speaker), the person or persons addressed, and the person or thing (person or things) not participating in the process of speech. As in Russian: читаю – читаешь – читает; читаем – читаете – читают; in English – I Speak, he speaks.

In Modern English the category of person is weekly expressed. In the present tense the suffixes – s-z-iz single out the third person singular. In the past tense there are no person distinctions. In the future tense we have auxiliaries “shall” and “will”. And in the conditional mood the auxiliaries “should” and “would”. It’s necessary to note that in speech there is a certain tendency at present to use “will” and “would” for all persons. The only exception is the verb “to be” which has the following person forms: am, is, are. The forms of the verb are not enough to show whether the agent of the action is supposed to be the person speaking, the person addressed, or the third person. Consequently, the English verb is dependent on the personal pronoun.

Eg: Will you join us? Yes, I shall.

The Category of Tense.

The category of tense is a system of three-member opposemes such as writes-wrote- will write; is writing-was writing-will be writing (read, sing, draw) showing the relation of the time of the action denoted by the verb to the moment of speech. It can be reflected in the language by means of 2 different ways: lexically and grammatically.

Lexically – by means of adverbial expressions and adverbs such as: yesterday, to-day, next week, now, a year ago, at 3 o’clock, last week, in 1946 etc. It can also be shown grammatically by means of: the category of tense, by the forms of definite verb. The difference between the lexical and the grammatical expression of time is somewhat similar to the difference between the lexical and the grammatical expression of number.

The Category of Number

It is vaguely expressed as there are few grammatical forms to express the lexical meaning of plurality and singularity.

The lexico-grammatical meaning of “number” is the generalization of a multitude of lexical meanings of individual numerals (three, five, nine, forty-two). The grammatical meaning is the generalization of two grammatical meanings: “singular” and “plural”.

The plural number, as in “girls”, shows indefinite plurality, whereas the meanings of numerals, as in “thirty, fifty” are definite plurality.

Like any grammatical meaning the plural of nouns is relative, dependent and indirect.

The lexical plural of a numeral like “eight” is not relative, being as much correlated with the singular of “one” as with the plural of “seven, nine, or eighty”. The plural of “eight” is independent as it is the lexical meaning of an independent word. Its reflection of reality is direct as that of any lexical meaning. So, lexically it is possible to name any definite moment or period of time: a century, a year, a day, a minute. The grammatical meaning of tense is an abstraction from only three particular tenses: the present, the past and the future. Lexically a period of time is named directly (last week, etc.). The grammatical indication of time is indirect: it is not time, but an action that took place before the moment of speech.

Lexical meaning of tense is the indication to whether the action took place in the past, takes (is taking) place regularly or at present, or it will take place in future. In other words: it shows the relation between the moment of speech and the moment of the action, or between the moment of one action and the moment of another one.

Grammatical meaning is general, it is – priority, coincidence of consequence.

The grammatical category of tense is a grammatical form expressing lexical (and grammatical) meaning, it is the relation between the moment of speech and the moment of an action, or between two actions.

As usual, the grammatical meaning of tense is relative. “Writes” denotes a present action because it is correlated with “wrote”, denoting a past action and with “will write” naming a future action”. “Writing” doesn’t indicate the time of the action because it has no tense opposites. “Can” has only a past tense opposite, it can’t refer to the past, but it may refer to the present and future. So, the forms of the verb can’t give us the exact time of the action. Some tense forms are used both relatively and absolutely: the past indefinite, the present indefinite. Some can be used only relatively: the past perfect, the future prefect and the future in the past. In most cases the tenses are used absolutely in simple sentences, mostly in independent simple sentences, in principle clauses in attributive and adverbial clauses of time, introduced by “when”. They are always used relatively in subject, object and predicative clauses, but even in simple sentences we can sometimes find the relative use of tenses. It happens when the sentence belongs to some closely knit passage.

Eg: I saw a light in a third floor window. The Robinsons had come back from the theatre (the relative use of tenses, priority).

The category of tense is a form of the verb which shows either 1) the relation between the moment of speech and the moment of an action or 2) the relation between the moment of one action and the moment of another action. In English there are three tenses^⁴⁵ (past, present and future) represented by the forms wrote, writes, will write (or lived, lives, will live). Some doubts have been expressed about the existence of a future tense in English. O. Jespersen denied the existence of a future tense: to his mind the verbs “shall” and “will” preserve some of their original meaning “shall”- an element of obligation and “will” - an element of obligation and volition. Thus, in Jespersen’s view, English has no way of expressing “pure futurity” free from modal shades of meaning, i.e. it has no form standing on the same grammatical level as the forms of the past and present tenses. But however, this is not convincing. Though the verbs “shall” and “will” may in some contexts preserve or indeed reserve their original meaning of obligation or volition respectively, as a rule they are free from these shades of meaning and express mere futurity. The meaning of volition may be excluded by the context.

Eg: I’m awfully sorry, but I will have to go back.

The tense form used absolutely shows whether the action took place before the moment of speech, after the moment of speech, or coincided at least with part of the moment. The tenses used relatively can’t tell us whether the action took place past, present or before. They can’t denote simultaneousness in the past, present or future.

Eg: I knew he went to the library here the form of the present tense is not used to show that the action took place before, it’s simultaneousness.

So, the tense form used relatively may denote priority in the past, present or future. The past perfect tense denotes priority in the past.

Eg: I had graduated from Oxford before the second world War was unleashed.

In some cases The present perfect tense may denote priority to some permanent or repeated action.

Eg: We never know whether she has switched off the light in the bathroom

(no relation between speech and time).

Some tense forms are used absolutely: the future indefinite, the present perfect. So, tense forms express the relations between the moment of one action and the moment of another action. There can be 3 kinds of such relations:

a) the action coincides with the time of speech.

Eg: I think I know you (simultaneousness in the present).

He will say he knows you (simultaneousness in the future).

I thought I knew you (simultaneousness in the past).

b) one action may take place before another action in the past:

Eg: I knew that it had been wrong (priority in the past).

c) It’s well known that a present tense form may also be used when the action belongs to the future. This also applies to the present continuous, as in the example:

Eg: He is arriving tomorrow.

The action expressed by the verb “arrive” in the present continuous tense belongs to the future: the adverbial modifier of time makes it clear, but it may also be expressed by the future tense: “He will arrive tomorrow”.

Лекция 10

Verbals (Non-finite forms).

(Infinitive, Gerund and Participle).

The verb exists in 2 groups of forms –finite and non-finite forms which differ to a certain extent. The finite forms directly refer to a person or thing and name action definite from the point of view of person, time of the action and its relation with reality. The finite forms of the verbs have also subject with which they agree in number and person.

Eg: is doing

shall be doing

would have done

We may say here that the agent is definitely shown by the forms of the verb. The non-finite forms name actions without definitely showing the agent, the time of an action or its relation with reality.

Eg:. to examine – we cannot decide what the agent is and where the action takes place (non-finite).

Eg: I examined him yesterday (finite) but:

The doctor wants to examine (non-finite) the sick boy.

All finite forms name agents. Consequently, the non-finite forms have no categories of person and mood, no category of number, and their category of tense differs greatly from that of the finite form. The Infinitive and the Gerund may be grouped together as having much in common, and the Participle should be taken separately. The infinitive and the gerund are supposed to be half-nouns and half-verbs. The infinitive has the category of aspect, there is a distinction between the common and the continuous aspect. The continuous infinitive is found, for example, in the following sentence: “He seems to be enjoying himself, quite a lot”.

With the gerund and the participle, on the other hand, things are different. Generally speaking, they exhibit no such distinction. Neither in the one nor in the other do we find continuous forms. The characteristics traits of the verbals are as follows:

– they have a double nature, nominal and verbal. The participle combines the characteristics of a verb and of an adjective, the gerund and the infinitive combine the characteristics of a verb and of a noun.

– the tense distinctions of verbals are not absolute (like those of the finite verb), but relative; the form of a verbal does not show whether the action it denotes refers to the present, past or future. It only shows whether the action expressed by the verbal is simultaneous with the action expressed by the finite verb or prior to it.

– all the verbals can form predicative constructions, i.e. constructions containing a nominal (noun or pronoun) and a verbal (participle or infinitive elements); the verbal element in predicate stands to the nominal element, in a relation similar to stands that between the subject and the predicate of the sentence. In most cases predicative constructions form syntactic units, serving as one part of the sentence. In the sentence a verbal may occur:

– singly, i.e. without accompanying word.

Eg: She sat frowning.

Reading is out of the question. – I can’t fix my attention on books.

Joining them is out of the question.

– in phrases, i.e. with one or several accompanying words (an object or an adverbial modifier to the verbal). These phrases form syntactic units serving as one part of the sentence. A phrase shouldn’t be confused with a predicative construction: between the elements of a phrase there is no predicative relation as it does not include a noun or pronoun denoting the doer of the action expressed by a verbal.

Eg: The windows of the drawing room overlooking the garden were closed.

She tried to calm him by smoothing the hand.

He said nothing to her mother to keep the secret for a while.

– in predicative constructions

Eg: She heard him unlocking the door and going out into the yard.

The crisis increasing unemployment, the living standard in the country dramatically fell.

Computerisation was certainly taken into account

Verbal Categories.

1. The Category of Voice: both the Gerund and the Infinitive have forms which show the direction of the action.

Eg: She doesn’t want to go to bed.

She doesn’t want to be worried.

She has no intention of doing this work.

I have no intention of being fooled.

The category of voice shows whether the action comes from the agent or directed to the agent. It is a grammatical form expressing whether the agent of the action is the subject or object of the sentence. We find a great number of cases where the active forms of the Gerund or Infinitive are used with clear passive meaning.

Eg: He is a graduate to be appointed to this vacancy.

There was no one to apply for help.

In the attributive and predicative functions we practically always use the indefinite infinitive.

Eg: We are to go through difficulties.

The house was to let.

The management was to blame for mutual non-payments.

The objective gerund is very often active in form though passive in meaning.

Eg: The job is worth taking.

The work in the office needs readjusting and redesigning.

The child needs feeding up.

2. The Category of Aspect: It characterizes the action as limited in time and taking place at a given moment.

Eg: The world seems to be intergrating.

3. The Category of Tense. The tense form of the Infinitive can be understood only from the point of view of the finite form of the verb. In fact the tense forms of the Infinitive are used relatively: the present Infinitive denotes simultaneousness in the present, past or future: the indefinite infinitive can denote the relative future when it is used after such verbs as: to want, to plan, to intend.

Eg: I meant to do it but I forgot (relative future to a past action).

The perfect infinitive denotes priority which may be priority to a past action, present or future.

Eg: I was glad to have spoken to her.

The prefect infinitive can be used without temporal meaning.

Eg: I was glad to have passed the interview (priority).

I was to have developed the activity at the assigned territory (no meaning of priority).

He was to have been the last to leave the site (indication that the action didn’t take place).

The tense forms of the Infinitive may be used absolutely. In this case the indefinite infinitive refers the action to the present or to the future, and the perfect infinitive refers to the past. The tense forms of the Infinitive are used absolutely when the Infinitive follows a modal verb in Subj.ΙΙ or in the meaning of supposition. The modal verbs have only one form of Subj.ΙΙ that means that this form has no temporal meaning. If we use the perfect infinitive it refers the action to the past.

Eg: I could have helped you, but I ignored it, sorry.

Modal verbs in the meaning of supposition have no temporal meaning. The difference between “may” and “might” is not temporal but in the degree of probability.

Eg: I may be available at any time.

I might be available at any time.

I could give you a lift.

I could have given you a lift (refers the action to the past).

Modal verbs have only one form of the Oblique Mood coinciding with the form of the past tense: the form has no temporal meaning because it is the only one. The indefinite infinitive used in combination with a modal verb in Subj.ΙΙ refers the action to the present or future. The perfect infinitive refers it to the past. Modal verbs in the meaning of supposition have no tense forms. “Must” has in general one form, and the forms “may” and “might” in the sentences differ not in the temporal meaning but in the degree of probability.

He may come.

Он может придти.

He might come.

Он всё-таки может придти.

In such sentences the difference is not temporal:

With the verbs “can” and “could”, “will” and “would” expressing supposition there is no difference in the form (either modal or temporal).

Eg: Can it be true? Неужели это правда?

Could it be true? Неужели это правда?

Eg: That will be the building you are looking for.

The difference in form carries no difference in meaning.

Modal verbs in the meaning of supposition have no temporal meaning of their own. It is the infinitive which refers the action to the present or past.

Eg: He is supposed to open the account.

He was supposed to close the account.

When the infinitive is used with a modal verb in the form of Subj.ΙΙ it acquires the temporal meaning.

Eg: I wish he might come.

I wish he could have come.

The form of the infinitive points to the present or past in these sentences.

The tenses of the Gerund are relative but there is a tendency in modern English not to use the perfect gerund especially in the objective function.

Eg: I remember seeing him there (not having seen).

Consequently, it’s possible to say that the Gerund is losing the category of tense.

The Syntactical Function of the Infinitive and the Gerund.

The Infinitive and the Gerund seem to have practically the same syntactical functions, very close to those of the noun and, therefore, they are half-nouns (The Infinitive has the category of tense, aspect, voice). Their syntactical functions are nearly the same, there’s only one function – the predicative where the Gerund and the Infinitive follow the same pattern and can be used one instead of the other. As to the syntactical functions of the Infinitive some grammarians consider that the Infinitive can’t be the subject or object in the sentence. Their points of view are:

1. Such cases as “to live is to struggle” are exceptions, very seldom found and not typical.

2. That in the pattern “it is impossible to do it”, the infinitive might be an opposition (приложение), attribute and so on.

3. In the sentence “I’m glad to see you” the infinitive is not an object, but part of the predicate; this statement is not entirely proved yet.

4. Such cases as “I am glad to see you” and “there is nothing to fear about”; “I’ve come to speak to you”, “the picture is too good to miss” should be called “extensions” (изъяснения).

But all these are just diversity of theories. The Gerund is much closer to the noun, it is used with prepositions and forms prepositional phrases with all the syntactical functions of a prepositional noun phrases. A noun with a preposition can be the predicative, the possessive object, the attribute, and the adverbial modifier. And so can be the Gerund that shows it is very close to the noun. Another proof of the identity of the Gerund and the Noun is that it can be modified by a possessive pronoun or a noun in the possessive case, but the relations between the possessive pronoun or a noun in the possessive case and the modified noun are attributes, while the relations between the possessive pronoun or a noun in the possessive case and the Gerund are predicatives.

Infinitive

1 .Meaning:

- action (to go)

- state (состояние) (to be angry)

2. Form

Non-Perfect

Active

Passive

(переходные глаголы)

to go

to read

to be going

to be reading

----

to be read

----

to be being read

Perfect

to have gone

to have read

to have been going to have been reading

----

to have been read

----

to have been being read

3. Functions

1. подлежащее (Subject):

To smoke is dangerous.

It is dangerous to smoke.

2. часть сказуемого (составного глагольного) (Predicative)

My task is to study.

3. дополнения прямого (Object)

I like to study.

4. --------------------------

5. обстоятельство (Adverbial modifier)

I come here to study.

Gerund

1.Meaning:

- action (without talking)

- свойство существительных substantivity (thingness) (предметность, явление)

... Like reading...

...hate eavesdropping...

2. Form

Non-Perfect

(несовершенный вид)

Active

Passive

(переходные глаголы)

going

reading

(прочтение, прочитав)

----

being read

Perfect

(совершенный вид)

having gone

having read

(кот.уже прочитали, прочитав)

----

having been read

3.Свойства существительного:

предлог (after reading)
притяжательное мест. Sorry for his coming late;
Сущ. в Possessive Case (director’s)
Сущ. в Common Case (I don’t mind the director sending me on a trip)

3. Functions

1. подлежащее (Subject):

a) Smoking is dangerous.

b) It is (no use/worth) going there.

3. часть сказуемого (составного глагольного) (Predicative)

My task is studying.

4. дополнения прямого и предложного (Object)

I like studying.

I insist on your studying.

5. определение (Attribute)

an idea of going there

an experience in teaching

the reason fir coming

6. обстоятельство (Adverbial modifier)

After, before, on, upon, without, instead of, by, in spite of.

before going to bed

on crossing.

Participle

1.Meaning:

- action (is reading / sat reading)

- process (are playing)

- (св-ва прилагательного) quality degree of smth. (a smiling face, when crossing, not finding)

2. Form

Participle I

Non-Perfect

Active

Passive

(переходные глаголы)

going (идущий) reading

(читающий)

being read

Perfect

having gone lining read

having been read

Participle II

Non-Perfect

Active

Passive

(переходные глаголы)

written

spoken

Perfect

1. ---------------------------

2. часть сказуемого (образует сказуемое)

He is studying ( форма Present Continuous)

3. --------------------------

4. определение (Attribute)

the boy crying

the crying boy

5. обстоятельство (Adverbial modifier)

1) crossing

2) when, while, not

When crossing the street

Not knowing that

Eg: I was impressed by her dancing (attribute to the noun “dancing”)

Compare: I was impressed by her dancing (gerund) the part so well.

The Participle

The Participle has 5 forms: 2 – syntactical (present and past – playing, written) and 3 analytical (passive, perfect, passive perfect –being read, having read, having been read. By comparing the present and the past participle we shall see what grammatical categories this non-finite form possesses.

Eg: I looked at the playing boy.

The action “playing” is active performed by the modified word, taking place at the same moment with the action of the finite form of the verb, of a temporary one and taking place at a given moment in the past. Consequently, the present participle has voice (active), tense (relative-simultaneousness) and aspect (continuous). The present participle has a tendency of losing the category of tense and then it turns into an adjective and, consequently, it loses its other grammatical categories.

Eg: a running boy (at a certain moment)

running water (action is permanent)

There are adjectives which are clearly felt as participle – a charming woman, a pressing issue. The most typical meaning of the past participle is state or quality as a result of an action.

Eg: A broken vase lay on the floor.

“Broken” names a passive action, directed to a modified word, an action proceeded by that of the finite form of the verb. The given past participle has voice (passive), tense (relative), aspect (perfect). These are the categories of the Participle. Not all verbs can have independent Past Participle. Subjective verbs can have no independent past participle: has died – the participle is not independent, it is an analytical form. But there is an exception: some verbs of motion (all subjective) have independent past participles.

Eg: When we came here he was gone.

In this case the past participle “gone” has no passive meaning. Past participle “gone” with the attributive meaning has no category of voice. Sometimes we come across past participles which have no meaning of priority and no aspective meaning.

Eg: A red car driven by a middle-aged man.

Past Participle here has only the category of passive voice, but no meaning of priority. Such forms as “written, being worn” are used as attributes in the below given sentence. The present participle (active and passive) can also be used adverbially (as adverbs).

Eg: The book written by O. Jespersen describes English syntax.

Eg: Skirts being worn this season are about 10 santimetres above the knee.

Eg: Being asked his name, he replied. Asked his name, he answered.

Eg: He left saying nothing.

According to some grammarians the present participle has no adverbial function, whenever it is not an attribute; it should be considered the predicative of a double predicate.

Eg: Smiling bitterly she left the examination room. “Left smiling” may be considered an inverted double predicate.

Лекция 11

Категория глагола

Verb Aspect

Rick Harrison

Verbs exhibit various changes in human languages; some tongues inflect their verbs to indicate tense (past, present, future); some inflect verbs to indicate the person and number of the subject and/or object; and some have special forms to indicate “moods” such as commands (imperatives), conditional or hypothetical statements, and so forth. An element of verb mechanics that seems to be neglected by many language designers is aspect.

(If you are not interested in invented languages but rather came here hoping to understand aspect in natural languages, read on! You will see that constructed languages provide some of the clearest examples of certain aspects.)

Aspect refers to the internal temporal constituency of an event, or the manner in which a verb’s action is distributed through the time-space continuum. Tense, on the other hand, points out the location of an event in the continuum of events.

Be advised that many of the verb forms which are traditionally called “tenses” in grammar books and foreign language text-books are actually aspects; the traditional terminology is misleading. The distinctions between she read that book, she used to read such books, and she was reading that book when I entered the room are aspectual distinctions rather than differences of tense.

Also be aware that there is no widespread agreement on terminology with regard to aspect. Among linguists, different people use the same terms in different ways; for example, the aspect which is properly called “perfect” is often called “perfective,” and this can lead to confusion when discussing languages that mark both a perfective-imperfective and a perfect-nonperfect opposition.

Not all languages have inflections or special words to mark aspect, but most languages have ways to express the meanings which are embedded in the aspectual categories. (Bulgarian has a very rich set of aspectual inflections, but some dialects of German have very few.) When explicit inflections or particles are not available to indicate aspect, languages will use less elegant methods, often involving idiomatic set phrases, such as “used to” which marks the past tense form of the habitual aspect in English. In many natural languages, we find verb forms that combine both aspect and tense, e.g. the Spanish imperfect Juan leía, “Juan was reading, Juan used to read,” which combines the past tense and imperfective aspect.

Perfective and imperfective

In the sentence she was singing when I entered, the verb “entered” presents its action as a single event with its beginning, middle, and end included; this is an example of the perfective aspect. The verb “was singing,” on the other hand, refers to an internal portion of her singing, without any reference to the beginning or end of her singing; this is an example of imperfective aspect. In other words, the perfective treats a situation as a single shapeless whole, similar to the concept of a “point” in geometry, while the imperfective looks at the situation from the inside out and admits the possibility that the situation has a temporal shape. “Situation” refers to anything that can be expressed by a verb: a “state” (a static situation that will remain the same unless something changes it), an “event” (a dynamic situation considered as a complete, single item) or a “process” (a series of dynamic transactions viewed in progress).

A few examples, provided by Comrie¹, might help us to clarify the perfective-imperfective distinction. “In French the difference between il régna (Past Definite) trente ans and il régnait (Imperfect) trente ans ‘he reigned for thirty years’ is not one of objective or subjective difference in the period of the reign; rather the former gathers the whole period of thirty years into a single complete whole, corresponding roughly to the English ‘he had a reign of thirty years,’ i.e. one single reign, while the second says rather that at any point during those thirty years he was indeed reigning... Similarly in Ancient Greek, we find the Aorist (perfective past) in ebasíleuse déka éte ‘he reigned ten years,’ or rather ‘he had a reign of ten years,’ to bring out the difference between this form and the Imperfect (imperfective past) ebasíleue déka éte ‘he reigned for ten years,’ or more explicitly ‘he was reigning during ten years.’”

Habitual and progressive

The imperfective aspect can be sub-divided into habitual and continuous aspects. The habitual aspect refers to a situation that is protracted over a long period of time, or a situation that occurs frequently during an extended period of time, to the point that the situation becomes the characteristic feature of the whole period. An example of the habitual aspect in the past tense is, the neighbor’s dog used to wake me up by barking every morning. A present-tense example would be I (usually) ride the bus home from work. We must be careful to avoid two common misconceptions about the habitual. First, the habitual is not the same thing as the iterative or frequentative aspect, which merely refers to something that happens several times without being the foremost characteristic of a period of time (e.g. he coughed over and over again, then recited his poem). Second, the past habitual does not necessarily imply that the condition is no longer true; it is perfectly reasonable to say Erik used to be a member of the Volapük League, and he still is.

The continuous aspect encompasses the progressive aspect. Progressivity is a special type of imperfectivity which emphasizes that an action is in progress; often this is mentioned to provide a background or frame of reference for some other situation. An example of the progressive aspect is English John is singing, Spanish Juan está cantando, Italian Gianni sta cantando, Icelandic Jon er að syngja, Irish tá Seán ag canadh.

Some behaviors of the progressive in English are relatively strange compared to other languages. One example of this is the use of the progressive to indicate a more temporary situation than is indicated by the basic form of the verb, e.g. the Sphinx stands by the Nile versus Mr. Smith is standing by the Nile, or I live at 123 Main Street (semi-permanently) versus I’m living at 123 Main Street (temporarily). English generally does not use progressive forms of verbs of passive perception; the phrase *you aren’t hearing seems odd in English, but the Portuguese counterpart você nao está ouvindo is perfectly acceptable. However, these verbs do take the progressive in English when referring to counterfactual perception, as in you aren’t hearing voices from beyond the grave again, are you? Also note that English environmental verbs, such as “to rain” and “to snow,” almost always occur in the progressive form when they are in the present tense, but some related languages (e.g. Icelandic) never use the progressive form of the corresponding verbs. If you are trying to design a neutral auxiliary language for international communication, you must be careful to exclude these anglo-centric, unpredictable uses of the progressive aspect from your design.

Perfect (retrospective) and prospective

Unlike most aspects, the perfect does not tell us anything about the internal temporal constituency of a situation. Instead, it indicates the continuing relevance of a past situation. In other words, the perfect expresses a relation between two points on the continuum of events. Linguists are not unanimous in classifying the perfect as an aspect rather than as a tense. An example of the perfect, from English: I have lost the book (perfect) versus I lost the book (non-perfect). The perfect can indicate a relation between a state in the past and an even earlier event, e.g. John had read the book; it can express a relation between a past event and the present state, e.g. John has read the book; and it can express a relation between a future state and an event that occurs prior to it, e.g. John will have read the book.

English often uses the perfect to express a situation that started in the past and continues into the present, e.g. we have lived here for a long time. Many other languages use the present tense in such sentences: French j’attends depuis trois jours, German ich warte schon drei Tage, Russian ja zhdu uzhe tri dnja ‘I have been waiting for three days.’

Because the term “perfect” is likely to be confused with “perfective,” and because its counterpart is called “prospective,” I would suggest that “retrospective” is a better name for this verb form.

The perfect verb form expresses a relation between a situation and some event that happened before it. In some languages we also find a prospective form which relates a state to some event that happens after it. In English the prospective is indicated by phrases such as “to be about to” and “to be on the point of,” as in John is about to resign from his job. In the “redneck” dialect of American English, the prospective is marked by the phrase “fixin’ to,” e.g. I was fixin’ to drive to work when I noticed a tornado comin’ toward the trailer park.

Aspects that mark the duration and stages of a situation

“Let’s start at the beginning.” Some languages can indicate the beginning of a situation with markers for an aspect called inceptive (also known as ingressive, commencative, initiative, etc.). For example, if a language has a verb that means “to be located inside something,”² the inceptive aspect form of that verb would mean “to enter, to go into, to begin to be located inside something.” Having an affix to mark the purely inceptive aspect³ would enable a language to derive many common verbs from a small number of roots. For example, “to know” plus the inceptive aspect marker means roughly the same thing as “learn, discover, begin to know,” and “to have” plus the inceptive marker means “to acquire, to begin to have.” Many of the most frequently used verbs in English are merely inceptive variants of other common verbs.

The inchoative aspect indicates the beginning of a state (as opposed to a process or activity). Keep in mind that many of the conditions which are expressed by the copula and an adjective in English, such as “to be blue” or “to be large,” are expressed by stative verbs in some other languages. The inchoative aspect of “to be blue” means “become blue, turn blue,” and the inchoative form of “to be large” would mean “become large, get big.” Esperanto marks the inchoative with -ig^-, as in li bluig^is, ‘he turned blue.’ (Unfortunately this Esperanto affix also has some other meanings; it is not semantically pure.)

The counterpart of the inceptive is the cessative (also called cessive, egressive or terminative), which indicates that a situation is ending. The cessative form of “to be located inside” would mean “to go out of, to no longer be located within,” and the cessative form of “to have” would mean “to lose, to cease having.”

Some students of the Slavic languages believe there is an aspect that means “being at or near the middle-point of a process;” this corresponds to the English set phrase “right in the middle of...” as in I was right in the middle of taking a bath when the telephone rang. I have seen this aspect called “transkursive Aktionsart” in German publications, but I do not know its English name. “Transcursive” does not seem very accurate.

The artificial language Lojban has two aspects pertaining to activities that are temporarily suspended: the pausative (indicated by de’a) and the resumptive (marked by di’a). Examples:⁴ mi pu de’a citka le mi sanmi, ‘I stopped eating my meal for a while; there was a pause in my eating of my meal’; mi pu di’a citka le mi sanmi, ‘I resumed eating my meal; I went back to eating my meal.’

Some languages mark a punctual aspect; this indicates situations that are instantaneous, i.e. they do not have any duration⁵. In Russian there are many verbs marked with the suffix -nu which are inherently punctual, e.g. kashljanut’ ‘cough,’ blesnut’ ‘flash.’

Some linguists say there is a durative aspect indicating that a situation occupies a specified amount of time. Comrie gives the Russian example ja postojal tam chas ‘I stood there for an hour.’

The delimitative aspect indicates that the situation lasts for a brief period. Sentences such as let’s take a little walk and he talked a bit about the war contain this aspect, although English lacks an affix or inflection to mark it and therefore must use vague phrases which could also have other meanings.

The perdurative indicates that a situation lasts for a long period, perhaps longer than expected, for example conflict between Esperantists and Idists rages on and on. It is possible to make a distinction between the perdurative and a protractive aspect which means “for a much longer period of time than is normally implied by the root verb, perhaps indefinitely.” By having a marker for this aspect, a language can convert the verb “to have” into a verb that means “to keep, to retain, to go on having,” and the verb “to be located at” can be converted to a verb that means “to remain, to stay, to linger at.”

Lojban uses za’o to mark another aspect which Lojbanists call superfective; this identifies an activity that continues beyond its natural ending point, e.g. le xirma pu za’o jivna bajra, literally ‘the horse [past tense] [superfective aspect] compete-type-of run,’ loosely ‘the horse kept on running the race after the race was over.’

The iterative aspect indicates that an action is done repeatedly, many times, over and over again. (Esperanto’s -ad- sometimes has this meaning, as in pafado and frapadi.) Some linguists call the iterative “frequentative,” while others distinguish the frequentative from the iterative by saying that the frequentative indicates an action done often, with high frequency. To increase the usefulness of a marker for these aspects, an artificial language can add an affix that means “regularly, rhythmically, at predictable intervals” and another that means “intermittently, irregularly, at unpredictable intervals.”

The semelfactive aspect indicates that there is only one “stroke” of a normally iterative situation, e.g. a single knock at the door. The simulfactive indicates that a normally time-consuming or multi-stage situation is compressed, and occurs “all at once” or “in one fell swoop.”

Mental aspects

The experiential aspect emphasizes the idea that a person has had the experience of doing something at least once prior to the time mentioned. There is more to the experiential aspect than the dry fact that something happened; the subject of an experiential verb is almost always a being which is capable of ‘having an experience.’ English doesn’t have a single distinct marker for this aspect, so we turn to Mandarin Chinese for examples; the experiential is marked by the suffix -guo in the neutral tone: ni chi-le yúchì méi-you ‘did you eat the shark’s fin?’ versus ni chi-guo yúchì méi-you ‘have you ever eaten (ever had the experience of eating) shark’s fin?’, likewise wo méi qù hen duo guójia ‘I did not visit many countries (during a certain trip or period of time)’ versus wo méi qùguo hen duo guójia ‘I haven’t visited (have never had the experience of visiting) many countries.’

Indicating that action is performed in an intentional manner might be classified as an aspect, although some might call it a modality. Adding the intentional aspect to the verb “to see” produces a word that means roughly the same thing as “to look at,” and adding the intentional to the concept “be aware of” produces the concept “pay attention to.”

The counterpart of the intentional is, of course, the unintentional or accidental. If we start with a verb that means “to hold something in one’s hand,” add the cessative marker to create a verb meaning “cease to hold,” and then add the unintentional marker, we now have a verb that roughly equals the English expression “to drop or let go of something (accidentally).” Similarly, if our artificial language has a verb meaning “to be in a sitting position,” we can add the inceptive aspect marker to create a verb meaning “to begin to sit,” and then we can add the unintentional aspect marker to create a word that corresponds to the English phrase “to (accidentally) fall on one’s butt, to fall on your arse.”

Tamil has an aspectual verb (vai, ve-) which indicates an aspect of future utility. Its meaning is something like “doing X for future use” or “considering the future consequences of the action.” Here are two examples:⁶ tanniirek kuticcu veppoom, ‘we will tank up on water, i.e. we will drink a lot of water now in order to avoid being thirsty in the near future’; pooliiskitte edeyaavadu olari vekkaadee ‘don’t go blabbing things to the police (because doing so might get you into even more trouble later).’

Aspects indicating distribution

The distributive aspect indicates that an action occurs in a “one-after-another” manner. An example, from Russian: on zaper vse dveri ‘he locked all the doors’ (non-distributive) versus on pozapiral vse dveri ‘he locked all the doors individually, one by one.’

Alternation (doing X, then doing Y, then X, then Y and so forth – or two agents taking turns performing an action) could also be treated as a quasi-aspect in the design of a new language.

The generic aspect occurs in broad, general statements such as “squirrels live in trees.” Old Vorlin’s suffix -ur, which usually marked nouns that indicate a broad concept as opposed to a specific example of the concept, could also be used as a verb infix to mark the generic aspect: ful foburo hom, ‘birds (generally) fear humans.’ The generic aspect is called the “universal tense” in some language descriptions.

Aspects of degree or intensity

The completive aspect indicates total completion of an activity, i.e. doing a process to the maximum possible degree. English examples: eat it all up (completive) versus eat (some of) it (non-completive); the fuel was used up versus the fuel was (perhaps only partly) used. The counterpart to this might be called the incompletive aspect; it indicates that the action was only partly completed or the verb’s object was partially affected.

The intensive, moderative, and attenuative aspects indicate the intensity of a situation. For example, when a liquid is moving in the moderative aspect, we use the verb “flow,” in the attenuative we say “trickle,” and in the intensive we use words like “gush” and “flood.” Similarly, when something emits light in the attenuative aspect we use verbs such as “glimmer” or “glow,” in the moderative we say “shine,” and in the intensive we say “glare.” An artificial language could derive these sets of closely related words from single roots using aspect markers, thus simplifying the task of learning the vocabulary.⁷

It is also possible to create an aspectual distinction for the concept expressed by the musical term crescendo, indicating an increase in intensity or degree; a few linguists have called this the evolutive aspect. Perhaps there is also an opposite decrescendo aspect.

Finally, an experimental suggestion: Marking the concept of “almost” or “just one step short of” with an aspectual affix would enable a language to convert “burn” to “smolder,” “believe” to “suspect,” etc.

Conclusion

If you want to design a language that is very expressive and able to derive a large number of related words from a relatively small inventory of roots, building a good system of aspect markers is essential. The ability to create these words by predictable derivation results in a vocabulary that has internally-defined meanings and is less vulnerable to misuse than an a posteriori lexicon taken from “recognizable” sources.

notes

1 Bernard Comrie’s book Aspect (Cambridge University Press, 1976, ISBN 0-521-29045-7) gives a good introduction to aspect, and is the source of some of the examples used here.

2 Many of the relationships that are expressed by prepositions in English and its relatives are expressed by verbs in some other languages.

3 Esperanto’s prefix ek- indicates an aspect of commencement and/or brevity.

4 Drawn from material in the reference grammar (now at lojban.org).

5 Some observers will object that these very brief actions do occupy several milli-seconds, and their duration could be measured with the right equipment. That’s not the point; human languages express the perceptions of ordinary people, not of machines and technophiles.

6 From The role of metaphor in the grammaticalization of aspect in Tamil by Harold F. Schiffman.

7 Vorlin’s infixes -oz-, -ez-, and -ig-, indicate the intensive, moderative and attenuative aspects, respectively. These affixes can also indicate the density or concentration of a substance or thing, as in bomoza ‘having a dense tree population’ versus bomiza ‘having few trees.’

Update History

February 2001: added links to footnotes 6 and 7; corrected some typographical errors.

July 2001: Added a sentence to the generic aspect paragraph.

November 2006: Improved the typography and layout. Updated several links. Moved this page from rick.harrison.net to rickharrison.com. Added a paragraph to the introduction

Лекция 12

The Category of Voice.

All objective verbs have the category of voice. All objective verbs name the actions which depend on 2 things:

1) the agent of the action

2) the object of the action

The agent of the action may correspond to the subject of the sentence. The object of the action may correspond to the object of the sentence.

Eg: She wrote an annual report.

“She” is the agent, “an annual report” is the object of the action. But it’s not always so.

Eg: An annual report was written by her. Object of the action “a report” is the subject of the sentence, while the object of the sentence is the agent of the action.

Eg: An annual report was finally written.

The agent is not mentioned. Voice is the form of the verb which shows whether the subject of the sentence is the agent or the subject of the action. The form of the active voice shows that the subject of the sentence is the agent of the action and, consequently, the form of the passive voice shows that the subject of the sentence is the object of the action. The passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon, that it is the receipient of the action, while the active voice shows that the action is performed by its subject, that the subject is the doer of the action. The passive voice is an analytical form in Modern English: it is built up by means of a corresponding tense of the auxiliary verb “to be” and the past participle of the given verb.

The Common Aspect:

Present – It is written

Past – It was written

Future – It will be written

Present Perfect – It has been written

Past Perfect – It had been written

Future Perfect – It will have been written

The Continuous Aspect:

The Continnous Aspect in the Passive Voice has only two tenses – present and past.

Present – It’s being written (built).

Past – It was being written (built).

As to the definitions of the Category of Voice there are two main views. According to one of them this category expresses the relation between the subject and the action. Only these two are mentioned in the definition. According to the other view the category of voice expresses the relations between the subject and the object of the action. In this case the object is introduced into the definition of voice. But we ought to define more precisely what is meant by the expression “relation between subject and action”. Ilyish B.A. gives the following examples: “He invited his friends” and “He was invited by his friends”. The relations between the subject (he) and the active (invite) in the two sentences are different since in the sentence “He invited his friends” “he” performs the action, and may be said to be the doer of the action, whereas in the sentence “He was invited by his friend” “he” does not act and is not the doer, but the object of the action.

The obvious opposition within the category of voice is that between active and passive. This has not been disputed by any scholar; however, views may differ concerning other voices. This opposition may be illustrated by a number of parallel forms involving different categories of aspect, tense, correlation and mood. We will mention only a few pairs of this kind, since the other possible pairs can be easily supplied:

involves – is involving

is involving – is being involved

involved – was involved

has involved – has been involved

should involve – should be involved

From the point of view of form the passive voice is the marked member of the opposition: its characteristic is the pattern “be + second participle”, whereas the active voice is unmarked: its characteristic is the absence of that pattern.

It should be noted that some forms of the active voice find no parallel in the passive (the forms of the future continuous and future perfect continuous) Thus, the forms “will be inviting, has been inviting, had been inviting and will have been inviting have nothing to correspond to them in the passive voice.

So, we can state that the active and the passive constitute a complete system of oppositions within the Category of Voice.

The question now is whether there are other voices in the English verb, besides active and passive. We may find doubts.

At various times, the following three vices have been suggested in addition to the two already mentioned.

1) the reflexive, as in “dressed himself”;

2) the reciprocal, as in “they greeted each other”;

3) the middle voice, as in “the door opened” (as distinct from “I opened the door”).

We’ll inquire mostly into Passive Voice. The Passive Voice in Modern English is also formed by the auxiliary verb “to get” + Past Participle, these cases are few.

Eg: She tried to wash her dog and got bitten by her pains.

Не путать: got frightened.

The Passive Voice in the English language is used in 2 constructions:

1) the 2 member construction (a subject and the predicate without any object).

Eg: The report was written.

2) the 3 member construction – subject, predicate an the “by” – object.

Eg: The report was written by the senior manager.

According to some grammarians in about 80 % of all cases of Passive Voice we have the 2-member construction. The reason for using the 2 member construction so often is obvious, or unknown: we use it when the agent is of no interest. The question why the 3 member construction should be used so widely is very hard to answer. According to some people every active construction has a parallel passive construction as kind of reflection. If we don’t take into consideration subjective verbs which are never used in Passive Voice such as “to resemble”, we still will come across very many cases in which active constructions have no corresponding passive constructions.

Eg: I took a train back home.

I was taken by a train (is impossible).

A taxi was taken by me to the station (is possible, but not English).

Some people say that the 3 member construction is used when we want to stress the agent.

Eg: The house was built by my father. (element of emphasis).

Eg: He was killed by a stray-bullet on the last day of the war (the meaning of emphasis is rather doubt). In fact we don’t know why 3 member constructions is used. Even superficial analysis shows that Passive Voice is used much wider in English than in Russian. Usually it’s explained in the following way: in the Russian language only transitive verbs have the category of voice. In English all objective verbs transitive and intransitive verbs have the category of voice. In the Russian language only the direct object may become the centre of a passive construction. In the English language the indirect object, the prepositional object and even an adv. modifier expressed by a prepositional phrase may become the centre of the passive construction.

Eg:

Active	Passive
I told him the truth.	He was told the truth.
I sent for the doctor.	The doctor was sent for.
We live in the house.	The house is lived in.

There are verbs which take 2 objects – direct and indirect and therefore they may form two passive constructions: to give, to tell, to show, to offer, to promise, to send (for), to listen to, to laugh at; to sleep, to live.

Eg: Nobody lived in this house.

The house was not lived in.

On the strength of this (на основании) example we say the indirect object is used as centre of the passive construction extremely seldom except the cases. Smb was told, given, shown, and offered. The prepositional object is a still rare case and is used as with verbs: to send for, to speak (to talk) about, to be listened to etc. As to prepositional adverbial phrases they are used only with the verbs: to sleep and to live. The Passive Voice has a twin in the English language. It is a free combination of words which is called the compound nominal predicate of being.

Eg: Her face was hidden by the brims of her head.

The bench was painted.

We cannot tell whether the word “hidden” is an analytical form of the verb “to hide” or whether it is a free combination of words denoting the state of the subject. And only the person who says the sentence knows what he means by it.

Eg: Her face was regularly hidden (by her) when she was in the street.

The bench was freshly painted by him.

There are certain (passive) indications, when we can decide whether it is an analytical form or a free combination of words.

1) First of all it is the form of the verb “to be” in the Perfect Tense Form, the form of the Future Tense and forms of the Continuous Aspect clearly indicate the Passive Voice.

Eg: His debts are being paid (have been paid).

2) Adverbial modifiers of frequency or indefinite time help to build the Passive Voice forms.

Eg: His debts are never paid.

His reports are rarely criticised.

His accounts are sometimes overdrawn.

3) The “by” – object also points to the analytical form.

Eg: His debts are paid by his father.

Not every “by” - object denotes the agent of the action.

Eg: Her eyes were hidden by the brims of her hat. (free combination of words, the subject is not the agent of the action).

Participle II may have left hand connections with link-verbs (Хаймович).

Eg: The young woman’s face became illumined by a smile.

The combination of words thus formed is often homonymous with a passive voice verb as in “His duty is fulfilled”. The verb “fulfilled” cannot be treated as the passive voice opposite to fulfills in the sentence “He fulfils his duties” since:

– it doesn’t convey the idea of action, but that of state, the result of an action.

– the sentence corresponds rather to “He has fulfilled his duty” than to “He fulfils his duty”, as the perfective meaning of Participle II is particularly prominent.

Some linguists are against this interpretation. According to L.S.Barkhudarov and D.A.Shteling, the combination “be+Participle II” should in all cases be treated as a Passive Voice form on the ground that Participle II is first and foremost a verb, the idea of state not being incident to this structure, but resulting from the lexical meaning of the verb and the context it occurs in.

Likewise, G. Vorontsova maintains that the Passive Voice form expresses either an action in its development or an action as an accomplished fact. In both cases we deal with the Passive Voice. However, this theory cannot explain the absence of an active equivalent to “As my work is finished, I am free to go”.

As shown by A. Smirnitsky “The table is made of wood” has no corresponding parallel with an active meaning. It is also not clear why other link-verbs may form combinations with Participle II and the most frequent link-verbs cannot do it: to seem forgotten, to look surprised, to be forgotten (surprised).

Examples like “I was concealed and motionless”, where Participle II is coordinated with an adjective, prove its combinability with the link-verb “to be”. The lexical meaning of the Participle may be of importance. So, if the Participle denotes a mental state, you are dealing with a free combination of words.

Eg: She was surprised to get a promotion.

In this case “surprised” denotes mental state; “was surprised” is a free combination of words – a compound nominal predicate of being.

Eg: They were frightened by the earthquake in the town. In this example the Participle names an action, the participle is in the Passive Voice. In every case when we are to distinguish between a free combination of words and an analytical form of the verb, ask yourself if an agent is possible.

Eg: Hell is paved with good intentions.

In this case an agent is impossible, it is state.

Eg: She was depressed by the atmosphere in the office.

The pillow was slightly depressed.

In the 1-st case we are dealing with state, in the other – with an action.

The combination of the verb “to be” with Participle II doesn’t always form the Passive Voice. It may also be a nominal predicate. When the verb “to be” with Participle II compreses the idea of an action, when it shows that the subject is acted upon, it is the Passive Voice; when Participle II indicates the state in which the subject is serving as a predicate, and the verb “to be” is a link verb, and they both form a nominal predicate.

We clearly have the passive voice:

When the verb is qualified by an adverbial modifier, characterizing the action.

Eg: The library door was opened at midnight.

When the verb is in the continuous forms.

Eg: The next moment he was being introduced to a middle-aged woman.

When the verb is in Future Tense (or the Future in the Past)

Eg: The entrance will be closed at 11.

Further details will be given in a subsequent chapter.

d) The use of the Perfect Forms often shows that the verb “to be” + Participle II is the Passive Voice.

Eg: Be careful, the door is freshly painted (a nominal predicate)

How much have you done? (The Passive Voice).

It’s all done, aunt (a nominal predicate).

e) The combination “to be” + participle II is usually the Passive Voice when the doer of the action is expressed in the sentence and is introduced by the preposition “by”.

Eg: They were interrupted by the leader of the delegation.

The young woman was bid by her elder sister to hold her tongue.

She was roused from her reflections by someone’s approach.

Basic qualities of the perfect forms

The position of the Perfect Form in the system of the English verb is a problem which has been treated in many different ways and has caused much controversy. Among the various views on the essence of the Perfect Forms in Modern English prof. Ilyish suggested (in his book) the three main trends:

1. The category of Perfect is a peculiar tense category, i.e. a category which should be classed in the same list as the categories “present” and “past”. This view was held by O. Jespersen^⁴⁶.

2. The category of Perfect is a peculiar aspect category, i.e. one which should be given a place in the list comprising ‘common aspect’ and ‘continuous aspect’. This view was held by a number of scholars include prof. G. Vorontsova^⁴⁷. Those hold this view had expressed different opinions about the essence of the perfect forms. It has been variously defined as “retrospective”, “resultative”, “successive”, etc.

3. The category of Perfect is neither one of the tense, nor one of aspect, but a specific category different from both. It should accordingly be designated by a special term and its relations to the categories of aspect and tense should be investigated. This view was expressed by Prof. A. Smirnitsky^⁴⁸. He considered the Perfect to be a means for expressing the category of ‘time relation’ (временная отнесенность).

The causes of this wide divergence of views fall under the following three main heads:

1. Scholars have been trying to define the basic character of this category without paying sufficient attention to the system of categories of which it is found to make a part.

2. In seeking the meaning of the category, scholars have not always been careful to distinguish between its basic meaning (the invariable) and its modification due to the influence of context.

3. In seeking the basic meaning of the category, scholars have not always drawn a clear line of distinction between the meaning of the grammatical category as such and the meanings which belong to, or are influenced by, the lexical meaning of the verb (or verbs) used in one of the perfect forms.

Let’s now consider the views expressed by different scholars in the order they were mentioned above. We are to find out whether the perfect is a tense category or not. We knew for sure that present, past and future are tense categories. It is firmly established and has never been doubted by anyone. Now, if the perfect is also a tense category, the present perfect would be a union of two different tenses: the present and the perfect; the past perfect, accordingly would be a union of the past and the perfect……etc, but it is quite impossible. If a form belongs to a tense category (say, the present) it can’t simultaneously belong to another tense category. Hence, it follows that the category of perfect can’t be a tense of category.

So, the view that the perfect is a special tense category has been disproved by Prof. B.A. Ilyish. According to him and to Prof. Smirnitsky, the perfect is neither a tense nor an aspect, it is found to be a special grammatical category, different from both tense and aspect. It is in complex harmony with the principle of distributive analysis though Prof. Smirnitsky didn’t at the time, use the term “distributive analysis”.

The essence of the grammatical perfect category expressed differing both from tense and aspect, Prof. Smirnitsky proposed to call “the category of time relation”, a bit later, the other term was adopted proposed by E. Axiutina “time correlation”. That was decidedly the term to be preferred.

Prof. Smirnitsky proposed to denote it in the correlative terms “non-perfect” and “perfect”.

The essence of perfect forms appears to be precedence: an action expressed by a perfect form precedes some moment in time. We cannot say that it always precedes another action: the present perfect form is most commonly used in sentences which contain no mention of any other action.

On the other hand, the use of a non-perfect form does not necessarily imply that the action didn’t precede some moment in time. It may, or it may not, have preceded it. To find this out, the hearer has to take into account some other feature of the context, or, possibly, the situation, that is an extralinguistic factor. Thus, the opposition between a marked and an unmarked item is the opposition between the perfect forms being marked both in meaning (denoting precedence) and in morphological structure (have+second Participle) and the non-perfect forms being unmarked both in meaning (precedence not implied) and in morphological structure (purely negative characteristic: the collocation “have+second Participle” is not used).

In Old English perfect forms were originally free syntactical combinations, now it turned into an analytical tense form. Such constructions, in which the doer of the action expressed by the participle was not the subject of the sentence, have still survived in Modern English as free syntactical combinations:

Eg: I have my shoes repaired

You must have it mended.

The perfect tenses are compound (analytical) tenses. They are formed by means of the auxiliary verb ‘to have’ and the Past Participle of the conjugated verb.

The Present Perfect of the Common Aspect is used to connect a past action with the present time. Present Perfect Tense is used in direct speech only. The Present Perfect connects the past with the present. As a part of the language system it may be said to present an action as associated with the present (present tense) unspecified as to its character (non-continuous aspect) and prior to some situation in the present (perfect order).

Eg: I have never had a baby and I’ll never even loved anyone.

The time here may be indicated by means of an adverb of indefinite time or frequency: often, seldom, rarely, never, sometimes, generally, just, already etc. In this respect B.A. Ilyish pays special attention to the speech surroundings. In certain speech surroundings it may be used to express priority to some situation in the present taken in a wider sense, as if it were, priority to the present in general.

Eg: Where you British irritate us is that you have lost the spirit of enquiry. (Galsworthy).

We occasionally may find the Present Perfect used in complex sentences both in the main and in the subordinate clauses – a use which doesn’t quite fit in with definition of the meaning of the form.

Eg: I’ve sometimes wondered if I haven’t seemed a little too frank and free with you, if you might not have thought I had “gone gay”, considering our friendship was so far from intimate. (quoted by B. Ilyish)

The Present Perfect of the Common Aspect is used to express an action already completed before the present situation in its consequences.

Eg: Will you give me your pencil for a minute?

I’m sorry but I’ve just broken it.

When the Present Perfect is used, there may be no time indication in the sentence at all:

Eg: I’ve done this translation.

I’ve received no answer to my letter.

The action may be associated with a period of time which has not yet ended: to-day, this week, this month, this year, etc.

Eg: I know she has been to Paris this year.

A period of time which is still lasting may also be indicated by “since” (a preposition, an adverb or conjunction introducing a subordinate clause); since denotes: “from a certain moment in the past up to now”.

Eg: I haven’t seen him since we left Kiev (a conjunction).

I have read three books in the original since the beginning of the academic year (preposition).

She called and saw him last summer but I haven’t seen her since (an adverb).

The whole period of duration is usually indicated by means of the preposition “for”:

Eg: She has known him for three years.

The Past Perfect Tense of the Common Aspect denotes an action which took place before a given past moment and viewed back from that moment. The past moment from which the accomplished action is viewed may be indicated by: 1) means of adverbial expressions – by 5 o’clock, by that (the) time, by the end of the month (year, week), etc.

2) by another action ( in the past tense):

Eg: By that time he had already started school.

When I came into the room, the child had fallen asleep.

Similar to the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect may express an action begun before a given Past moment and continued into that past moment.

Eg: When we came to the University our friends had been waiting for us for an hour and a half.

When we learnt about it, she had been ill for about a week.

The Past Perfect may be a purely temporal Past Perfect, indicating merely that the action took place before a given past moment without connecting it in its results or consequences with that past moment, or the action may be connected in its results or consequences with the given past moment from which the action is viewed back.

Eg: She told me that her brother had left Moscow for Leningrad in early December.

He said he had finished his compositions.

The Present Perfect of the Continuous Aspect expresses an action begun in the past and continued into the present. It connects the past with the present through the uninterrupted progress of an action before the present moment and still continuing at that moment.

Eg: I’ve been doing this work since early morning.

We have been going to pictures about twice a week even since (Maugham).

It is natural that the Present Continuous Perfect may have an inclusive meaning in speech, in which case it is, as a rule, associated with an adverbial phrase or clause showing that the action still goes on.

The Past Continuous Perfect has much in common with the Present Continuous Perfect, the main difference between them being that of tense. It presents a past action as preceding a certain situation and viewed in its development. Like the Present Continuous Perfect it may be inclusive if supported by the context or else exclusive.

Eg: By that time I had been studying English for about a year (inclusive, the action is in process).

Here I saw this man whom I had lost sight of some time for I had been traveling in the provinces.

The category of aspect is closely connected with the category of tense. Aspect is a form of the verb which shows the character of the progress of the action. The Continuous Aspect is used first of all to characterize the action as a temporary one taking place at some moments:

– at the moment of speech ( Present Continuous)

Eg: Are you feeling well? You are looking pale.

– at the (some) moment in the past. (Past Continuous); the moment in the past may be indicated adverbially by a subordinate clause.

Eg: At ten o’clock in the morning I was writing my examination test.

When I saw him in the corridor he was speaking to the teacher.

– at a given moment in the future.

Eg: At this time tomorrow I’ll be flying to Vienna.

The Continuous Aspect of the present and the past tense may be also used to denote a future or a relatively future action.

Eg: We are going to the movies to-night (we mean a future action).

He was very busy as he was leaving for Rome that evening (a relatively future action is meant).

The English language has a special form of the future: the Future in the Past, to express a future action viewed from a past moment (sequence of tenses). It is formed by means of “should” and “would” with the infinitive of the main verb:

Eg: It was settled that we should study French.

He thought that we went to the library. (sequences of tenses).

The Future-in-the Past of the Continuous Aspect (I should be writing) is used to express a concrete action going on at a definite future moment (occasionally covering a whole period of time in the future when that future moment is viewed from the Past:

Eg: I told him that I should be doing my lessons at six o’clock in the evening (Continuous Aspect).

The Future-in-the Past is a tense of the indefinite form. The indefinite form merely shows that the action takes place in the future or present and past. The forms of the verb gives no indication as to its duration or completion.

The Formation of the Present Indefinite. The Present Indefinite is formed from the infinitive without the particle “to”. In about 70 per cent of all cases it serves to denote a habitual, recurrent act, typical of a given person or thing, its more or less constant characteristics.

Eg: We never talk about it.

It is used in narration describing a chain of events in the present. The action it denotes may either coincide with the moment of speech or cover more or less lengthy period of time including the moment of speech. The Present Indefinite Tense is also used to express actions permanently characterizing the subject.

Eg: That’s where you live.

You do what you like.

It is used to express statements of a general character or universal truths.

Eg: Light travels more quickly than sound.

With a higher pressure a thing melts at a cooler temperature.

The Present Indefinite Tense is used in stage remarks where the playwright doesn’t wish to stress the actions then in progress, but merely states them as directions to the actors:

Eg: Looks at her in amazement (O. Wilde). (quoted by Ganshina)

The street bell rings (B. Shaw). (quoted by Ganshina)

It is the fact itself that is important, but not the progress of the action. The following sentence clearly illustrates it.

Eg: Why do you speak so fast.

You answer much better now than you have answered at the last lesson.

Why don’t you illustrate your report with examples.

The Present Indefinite Tense is used with the verbs which are not commonly used in the Continuous Aspect: to hear, to understand, to see etc. In a context shown that reference is made to the past, the Present Indefinite Tense may be used to denote past events, mostly presented as the speaker’s reminiscences. When employed in the function, it is often termed “historic” or “dramatic”. present. It can only be used if there is something in the context or in the situation of speech to show that the events described belong to the past.

Eg: I remember it as vividly as if it had happened yesterday. The old general shakes my hand; smiles and says: “Well done, son”. (G. Curme.)

There is also the so called “analistic” present, a variety “historical” present used when some well known events or public figures of the past are spoken of. No other reference to the past may then be necessary:

Eg: Then Edward the Elder wins back Essek.

The “historical present” functions as a stylistic device showing vividness and expressiveness to narration, bringing past events nearer to the hearer (or reader), making them unfold before the speaker’s eyes. When we quote an old author we feel his words “have weight in the question of the hour” (G.Curme).

The Present Indefinite Tense may be used to denote a future action. The usage has been handed down from old English with its two-tense system, in which a future action was regularly denoted by the present tense. It mostly occurs with verbs denoting concrete acts (such as to come, to leave, to sail, to go, to graduate). When so used, (the tense) it has a distinct modal force. It is used with the implication of the certainty of fulfillment. But it has acquired a new meaning not abserved in Old English. Quite naturally the Present Indefinite Tense used in reference to the future occurs, as a rule, in a context indicating futurity (with such adverbs as “tonight”, “tomorrow”, “next week” etc). It’s regularly found in adverbial clauses of time and condition if the verb of the principal clause denotes future act.

Eg: I’ll ring you up when I am back home.

If I receive her letter, I’ll answer it immediately.

This uses have the modal tinge of the Present Indefinite Tense: the present in the subordinate clause stresses the reality of the condition or circumstances represented by the subordinate clause. But in fact, it leaves some room for doubt. Prof. Ivanova believes that the use of the present in the subordinate clauses of time and condition results from the fact that the idea of futurity is sufficiently clear from the form of the verb in the principal clause and the semantics of the conjunction. The form of the verb in the subordinate clause expresses no temporal meaning of its own.

The Past Indefinite. This Tense refers an action to the past. Therefore, it is primarily the tense of narration. Used in speech it can denote isolated acts, a succession of events, recurring action, etc.

Eg: We occasionally went into Chelsea, at least he got as far along the em bankment as the King’s Arms, and more occasionally he took Adelaide to a smart King Road restaurant, because she liked that, but he never left at home over that particular boarder (Iris Murdoch “Bruno’s Dream”).

Since it denotes an action which precedes the moment of speech it is associated with a time limit. The Past Indefinite Tense is often associated with the following adverbs and adverbial expressions of past time: yesterday, a week ago, last night, last week, etc.

Eg: She saw me yesterday.

He was (visited) in Sweden last summer.

The Future Indefinite Tense. It is analytical in structure. It is built up with the help of the word-morphemes “shall” and “will”. Some grammarians, (among them O. Jespersen, G. Curme) do not recognize the existence of the pure future in English since, in their opinions, “shall” and “will” are in all cases metaphases. In Old English there was no special form for the future tense, an action in the future was generally expressed by the present tense. This usage is still serious in such a sentence as:

Eg: We return tomorrow.

“Shall” and “will” were originally notional verbs: “will” denoting determination, “shall” – compulsion or obligation. But as an action which a person intends to do or is obliged to do usually refers to the future, these verbs lost their original meaning and turned into mere auxiliaries of the analytical future tense. “Shall” is used for the 1-st person plural and singular and the 3-d person plural, “will” – for the 3-d person singular. But in contemporary English (especially in the USA) there is a strong tendency to use “will” for all persons singular and plural.

Since the Future Tense denotes an action not yet realized, but one that is to take place, that is an action planned, expected, anticipated, etc. It is natural that the future tense often acquires a modal tinge of supposition (Виноградов).

Лекция 13

SUBJECT—VERB AGREEMENT

СОГЛАСОВАНИЕ ПОДЛЕЖАЩЕГО CO СКАЗУЕМЫМ

1. Когда следующие слова употребляются в роли подлежащего, они всегда имеют значение единственного числа. Некоторые из них имеют значение множественного числа, так как обозначают группу людей или предметов, но тем не менее сказуемое с ними всегда сочетается в единственном числе.

everyone someone anyone noone each

everybody somebody anybody nobody either

everything something anything nothing neither

E.g.: Everyone is here.

If either of you takes a vacation now...

Neither of these books is very new.

Но: Each student and the teacher have a computer.

2. Если слова «each» и «every» стоят перед подлежащим в единственном числе и соединяются союзом «and», сказуемое с ним употребляется в единственном числе.

E.g.: Every man and woman is eligible to vote.

Each student and teacher has a computer.

3. Вводящее подлежащее «it» имеет значение единственного числа и требует сказуемого в единственном числе даже, если оно вводит действующие лица или предметы во множественном числе, то есть даже, если за сказуемым следует слово во множественном числе.

E.g.: It was the dogs which awakened me.

It is his grades that worry him.

4. Фразы с предлогом, вклинивающиеся между подлежащим и сказуемым и увеличивающие число действующих лиц, меняя тем самым единственное значение подлежащего на множественное, не меняют число сказуемого. Сказуемое сочетается с первым подлежащим.

	Together with
	in addition to
	along with
The man	as well as	his ten children	is leaving soon
	except smb.
	one of + pi. noun.(one of the parties)

E.g.: Everyone except him has a book.

The teacher along with her students is viewing a film.

5. Слова «there, here, where» никогда не бывают подлежащими. Когда предложение начинается с этих слов, порядок слов меняется, и сказуемое становится перед подлежащим.

E.g.: There are nо dogs in this place.

Here are the results of the experiment.

Note: Если после «here» существительное меняется на местоимение, порядок слов восстанавливается, и подлежащее вновь становится перед сказуемым.

E.g.: Here they are.

6. Подлежащие, соединенные союзами: «and», «both ... and» вceгда употребляются в форме множественного числа.

E.g.: A red Honda and a blue Ford are parked outside.

Both a tiger and an elephant are in the Zoo.

Note: Однако, если союз «and» соединяет существительные, перед которыми стоят слова «each and every» (см. п. 2), сказуемое

употребляется в единственном числе.

E.g.: Each dog and cat is vaccinated.

7. «Several», «many», «both», «few» — слова со значением множественного числа и требуют сказуемое во множественном числе.

E.g.: Both are going to attend the University.

Only a few have passed the exam.

8. Ряд существительных всегда имеют значение множества (Plural! Tantum), сказуемое с ними употребляется всегда во множествен ном числе:

Tools

(инструменты)

scissors (ножницы)

pliers (щипцы)

tongs (клещи)

pincess (пинцет, щипцы)

scales (весы)

Clothes

(одежда)

tights (колготки)

shorts (шорты)

slops (готовое платье)

jeans (джинсы)

pants (брюки)

trousers (брюки)

sunglasses (очки)

Абстрактные существительные

thanks

а также:

riches

means

Собирательные существительные

memories

(воспоминания!

memoirs

(мемуары)

environs

(окрестности)

contents (содержимое)

sweepings (сор)

supplies (припасы)

goods(товары)

stairs (лестница)

eaves (веки, навес)

dregs (подонки)

E.g.: Your sunglasses are very modern.

His memoirs are very pitiful.

Your thanks are enough to forget the quarrel.

Note: Однако, если некоторые из вышеупомянутых существительных употребляются со словами «а pair of ...», «а word of», сказуемое стоит в единственном числе.

E.g.: That pair of pants is not new. A word of thanks is enough.

9. Когда два подлежащих соединены конструкциями «either... or», «neither... nоr», «not only ... but also», сказуемое сочетается с ближайшим к нему подлежащим (т.е. с последним подлежащим).

E.g.: Neither the students nor the teacher is allowed to smoke here.

Either the teacher or the students have your book.

10. Некоторые существительные могут иметь как значение единичности, так и множества в зависимости от слов, к которым они относятся. Число существительного, следующего за этими словами определяет форму сказуемого. К ним относятся: «nоnе», «all», «some», «аnу», «majority», «most», «half» и т.д.

E.g.: All of the book has been destroyed, (вся книга ...)

All of the books have been thrown away, (все книги ...)

All of the money is in the bank.

11. Географические названия, названия книг, газет, журналов, обществ, организаций, клубов сочетаются со сказуемым в единственном числе даже, если названия имеют форму множественного числа.

E.g.: The New York Times is a good newspaper.

Star Wars was a good movie.

Note: Однако, если эти названия обозначают не просто географическое название, а горы как таковые или острова и их особенности, то сказуемое употребляется в форме множественного числа.

E.g.: The Seyshells (Сейшельские острова) do not produce oil.

The Balkans are composed of sedimentary (осадочные) strata (слои), sing. stratum — pl. strata.

12. «A number of» имеет значение множественного числа (several, some — т.е. несколько, ряд), a «the number of» имеет значение единственного числа (и переводится как «число»), поэтому сказуемое с первым стоит в форме множественного числа, а со вторым — в форме единственного числа.

E.g.: A number of students were missing from yesterday's lecture.

The number of European students at the University is small.

13. Слова со значением количества времени, денег, веса, объема («time «mоnеу», «weight», «volume» и т.д.) имеют значение множества, но сказуемое с ними употребляется в форме единственного числа.

E.g.: Two weeks is enough time to have a vacation.

Five hundred dollars (500) is required as a minimum payment.

Ten extra pounds is a lot to lose in a week.

20 gallons of gasoline costs a lot of money.

Note: Однако, с вышеупомянутыми словами сказуемое стоит в форме множественного числа, если имеется в виду количеств отдельно взятых дней, часов, недель, лет, банкнот, фунтов веса и т.д.

E.g.: The three years between 1991 and 1994 were the hardest for the state.

14. Ряд существительных имеют только форму множественного числа они близки по значению к Pluralia Tantum, но тем не менее он имеют значение единичности, и сказуемое с ними употребляется, форме единственного числа. К ним относятся:

Academic subjects Diseases Abstract nouns

mathematics measles (корь) news

physics mumps (свинка) politics

economics rickets (рахит) а также:

statistics herpes (герпес) billiards

ethics barracks

civics works (цех)

phonetics

optics

mechanics

acoustics

ед. число мн. число

наука приборы

statistics

статистика цифры

ethics

наука о манеры

поведении

mechanics

наука о устройства

двигателях

Note: Названия наук имеют значение единичности и сказуемое с ними употребляется в форме единственного числа, но эти же слова могут означать приборы, устройства, манеры, тогда они имеют значение множества, и сказуемое с ними употребляется в форме множественного числа.

E.g.: Mathematics is a difficult subject.

The news was very good.

Acoustics are excellent in this hall.

15. Собирательные существительные, как правило, употребляются как единое целое, т.е. имеют значение единственного числа, и требуют сказуемое в форме единственного числа. К этим словам относятся: class, team, crew, police, committee, audience, family, band, cattle, the press, faculty, public, jury, Congress, government, army и т.д.

E.g.: The class has its final test on Friday.

Те же существительные могут выступать как существительные, обозначающие множество, тогда они рассматриваются как группа отдельно взятых индивидуумов, и сказуемое с ними употребляется в.форме множественного числа.

E.g.: The class are working on their individual projects.

В таких случаях в предложении стоит какой-нибудь указатель (например, местоимение), который помогает определить число.

E.g.: The police are everywhere and they are searching for the criminals.

The jury are in their seats.

16. Ряд существительных имеют одну и ту же форму как для единственного, так и для множественного числа. К ним относятся: species, series (род, тип), deer, pike (щука), swine, trout (форель), salmon (лосось), cod (треска), sheep (овца), dozen, pair, score. Артикли и местоимения перед такими существительными помогают определить их число.

E.g.: That species is rare. (Этот вид очень редкий, редко встречается).

Those species are common. (Те виды широко распространены).

That deer is young. (Тот олень молодой).

Those deer are old. (Те олени старые).

Существительные dozen, pair и score могут иметь форму множественного числа.

E.g.: Two pair of gloves, two pairs of jeans.

17. Следующие существительные употребляются только в форме единственного числа: (Singularia Tantum) shrubbery (кустарник), linen (белье), luggage, fish (much, many), machinery (станки), furniture, fruit, scenery (пейзаж), timber (строевой лес), leafage (листва), minority, knowledge, progress (успехи), hair, news, advice, money.

E.g.: Where is the money? It is on the table.

Your advice is always good. I gladly follow it. (Твои советы всегда хорошие. Я с удовольствием следую им).

18. Существительные на -ese, -ch, -ish, (Chinese, French, English) требуют сказуемое в форме единственного числа, если они обозначают языки. Если они обозначают население страны, то сказуемое употребляется в форме множественного числа.

E.g.: French is a Romance language.

The French are romantic.

English is spoken in the U.S.

The English love tea very much.

19. В английском языке много заимствованных слов из других языков. У некоторых из них необычная для английского языка форма единственного и множественного числа.

Origin	singular	plural		singular (plural) examples
Greek	-is	-es		basis (bases), crisis (crises)
Greek	-on	-a		criterion (criteria)
				phenomenon (phenomena)
Latin (m)	-us	-i/a		radius (radii), alumnus (alumni)
	apparatus	apparatus	(выпускники мужского пола)
Latin (f)	-a	-ae	alga (algae) (водоросли), vita (vitae) (жизнь)
Latin (n)	-um	-a	datum (data), medium (media)
Latin	-ix/-ex	-ices	index (indices) appendix (appendices)

E.g.: The algae in the pool are hard to remove.

The radius of the circle is two inches.

20. После «nо оnе» и «nоnе» сказуемое может быть и в единственном, и во множественном числе.

а) none of the + неисчисл. существ. + сказуемое в единств, числе

E.g.: None of the stolen money has been found.

б) none of the + исчисл. сущ. во мн. числе + сказуем. во мн. числе

E.g.: None of the students have finished the exam yet.

в)no + существ. в единств, числе/ неисчисл. сущ. + сказ. в ед. числе

E.g.: No example is relevant to this case.

г)no + существ. во множ. числе + сказуемое во множ. числе

E.g.: No examples are relevant.

21. «Majority» может иметь сказуемое как в форме единственного, так и множественного числа.

The majority + сказуемое в единственном числе.

+ существительное во множ. числе + сказуемое во множ. числе.

E.g.: The majority believes ...

The majority of the students believe...

22. Существительные, которые обозначают группу животных и рыб употребляются только со сказуемым в единственном числе.

a flock of birds — стая птиц

a herd of cattle — стадо скота

a pack of dogs — стая собак

a school of fish — гурт рыб (стая)

a pride of lions — семья львов

E.g.: The flock of birds is circling overhead.

A school of fish is being attacked by sharks.

23. Выражения «оnе or two», «оnе after another» требуют сказуемого во множественном числе.

E.g.: There are one or two things you should remember.

The students one after another are flooding into the assembly hall.

Лекция 14

Английское существительное, как известно, сопровождается артиклем — определённым (the) или неопределённым (a, an); может и не иметь при себе артикля.

Проблема грамматического значения артикля и его места в языке — один из самых сложных вопросов английской грамматики, и решается он различными авторами далеко не однозначно.

Проблема места артикля в языке представлена двумя основными теориями: одна из них рассматривает сочетание артикля с существительным как аналитическую форму существительного, другая относит артикль к служебным частям речи и трактует артикль плюс существительное как сочетание особого типа. Представители теории аналитической формы приравнивают, таким образом, артикль к вспомогательной части аналитической формы. В пользу этого взгляда выдвигаются в основном следующие доводы: артикль является морфологическим показателем имени существительного; он не обладает лексическим значением. Доводы эти довольно серьёзны; однако они представляются недостаточно убедительными. Хотя артикль действительно является морфологическим показателем имени, и в этом его основное формальное назначение в языке, все же он не составляет вместе с именем такой неразделимой единицы, как, например, аналитическая форма глагола. Прежде всего, он является определителем имени, т. e. между ним и именем существует синтаксическая связь, невозможная между компонентами аналитической формы.

Артикль может быть заменен местоимением: определённый артикль -указательными местоимениями this, that, неопределённый — местоимением some; вспомогательный глагол аналитической формы ничем заменен быть не может. Кроме того, хотя артикль действительно не имеет лексического значения, он имеет собственное грамматическое значение или даже значения. На этом основании представляется правильным рассматривать его как компонент сочетания и как служебную часть речи.

Мнения расходятся также в отношении количества артиклей. За последние годы получила широкое хождение теория трех артиклей: определённого, неопределённого и так называемого нулевого (отсутствие артикля). Теория нулевого артикля, разумеется, непосредственно связана с теорией нулевой морфемы (см. 1.0.1). Однако признать существование нулевого артикля, т. e. его нулевого экспонента, можно лишь в том случае, если артикль рассматривается не как отдельное слово, а как морфема, т. e. является фактически структурным компонентом существительного, наравне со словоизменительными и словообразовательными суффиксами. Это означало бы признание существования аналитического слова, компонент которого — морфема — свободно передвигается (a question — an important question — an urgent important question) и может заменяться семантически значащим словом (some important question, that question). Но тогда возникает возможность рассматривать любое сочетание лексически полного слова с тем или иным словом служебной части речи как аналитическое слово, например сочетание существительного с предлогом: the violence of the storm. Совершенно очевидно, что при такой трактовке все формальные критерии просто игнорируются и сама концепция структуры слова, а также грамматических категорий становится зыбкой и бесформенной.

Если же рассматривать артикль как слово, то, по справедливому указанию Б. А. Ильиша, независимо от того, как относиться к понятию нулевой морфемы, понятие нулевого слова не представляется приемлемым. Слово — самостоятельная единица, которая может или присутствовать, или отсутствовать в предложении или словосочетании, но не может быть представлена нулевым экспонентом. Поэтому мы будем в дальнейшем изложении придерживаться теории двух артиклей и говорить об отсутствии артикля в соответствующих случаях. Нередко встречается термин «опущение артикля», но это, как замечает Б. А. Ильиш, недоразумение: никакого опущения, т. e. пропуска, здесь нет. Термин «опущение артикля» применим в случаях стилистически обусловленных, например, в газетных заголовках, телеграммах: CONGRESSMAN MAKES STATEMENT.

Что касается значения артикля, большинство авторов склоняются к мнению, что артикль представляет категорию определённости/неопределённости. Термины эти весьма малосодержательны и поэтому удобны, ибо вряд ли можно определить значение артиклей одним словом, которое охватывало бы всю сложность их семантики.

Как указано выше, морфологическая функция артикля заключается в том, что он является показателем имени существительного. Синтаксическая его функция заключается в том, что он определяет левую границу атрибутивного словосочетания: the leaves, the green leaves; the glossy dark green leaves. В этой функции он может быть заменен любым другим определителем имени: those glossy dark green leaves, its glossy dark leaves...

Основной семантической функцией артикля, как указывает С. Д. Кацнельсон, является актуализация понятия; иначе говоря, артикль соотносит то или иное понятие с действительностью, представленной в данном тексте (текст — любое высказывание независимо от его объема и содержания). Следует заметить, что любой текст актуализирует языковые единицы: в предложении Не is here элемент he указывает на какое-то известное собеседникам лицо, is относит действие к настоящему, here указывает на место, известное собеседникам. В отрыве от текста эти единицы — he, is, here — не имеют соотнесенности с действительностью. Актуализация, возникающая при употреблении артикля, отличается тем, что она отражает субъективное задание говорящего (пишущего). По справедливому замечанию С. Д. Кацнельсона, форма числа также является способом актуализации существительного, и этот способ всегда объективен: мы не можем употребить форму множественного числа, говоря об одном предмете, и наоборот. Артикль же избирается согласно ситуации.

Существует набор правил, определяющих желательность употребления того или иного артикля в определённых ситуациях.

1. Грамматическая функция английских артиклей

В отечественных исследованиях английские артикли традиционно рассматриваются как служебные слова, но такие, которые служат средством выражения грамматических категориальных противопоставлений в системе имени (Аналитические конструкции 1965: 62 и след.). Обратим внимание на внутреннюю противоречивость подобной трактовки артиклей: рассматривая артикли как служебные слова, мы тем самым квалифицируем их как средства выражения смысловых отношений в речевой цепи, не принадлежащих именным словоформам. В то же время, связывая артикли с категориальными грамматическими отношениями в системе английского имени, мы включаем артикли в состав именных словоформ. Одна из задач настоящей статьи заключается в том, чтобы разрешить указанное противоречие в традиционной трактовке артиклей.

Особенностью синтагматических свойств артиклей в английском языке является их функциональная связь с единицами речи (словами в речи и синтагмами), выделяемыми на основании присутствия смысловых единств в речевом мышлении говорящих. Указанный вывод может быть сделан на основании следующих фактов английской речи (Огуречникова 2006):

1. Попытка связать артикль по смыслу с непосредственно следующим за ним существительным часто ведет к нарушению смысловых связей в соответствующем контексте.

Doubtless this could not be, but that she turns // Bodies to spirit by sublimation strange, // As fire converts to fire the things it burns, // As we convert our food into our nature change. - (Coleridge. “From Biographia Literaria”). «Без сомнения, это было бы невозможно, если бы поэзия не превращала // тело в дух посредством удивительного очищения, // как огонь превращает в пламя то, что он сжигает, // как наша пища трансформируется, меняя наше естество».

Исключение атрибута it burns из состава синтагмы, выделенной курсивом, привело бы к неверной трактовке соответствующего высказывания (ср. … as fire converts to fire the things it burns … vs. …as fire converts to fire the things it burns…): «когда огонь превращает вещи в пламя, он горит» вместо «огонь превращает в пламя то, что он сжигает».

2. Следует также отметить наличие в английской речи многовершинных артиклевых синтагм, в структуру которых входят несколько существительных, что, однако, не предполагает повтора артиклей при каждом из таких существительных.

The Rabbit started violently, dropped the white kid gloves and the fan, and scurried away into the darkness as hard as he could go. Alice took up the fan and gloves, and, as the hall was very hot, she kept fanning herself all the time she went on talking: ‘Dear, dear! How queer everything is today! …’ (Carroll. “Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland”). «Кролик судорожно вскочил, уронив белые детские перчатки и веер, и побежал в темноту на пределе своих возможностей, растворившись в ней. Алиса подняла веер и перчатки, и, поскольку в зале было очень жарко, она постоянно обмахивалась веером, продолжая разговаривать: «Дорогая, дорогая! Какой странный сегодня день! …».

Сравнивая словосочетания the white kid gloves and the fan, с одной стороны, и the fan and gloves, с другой, отметим зависимость повтора артикля от способа восприятия денотативной ситуации говорящим: повтор артикля указывает на способ членения денотативной ситуации. В первом случае (the white kid gloves and the fan) повтор артикля указывает на то, что в речевом мышлении говорящего присутствует два смысловых единства, которым соответствуют два фрагмента денотативной ситуации. Напротив, отсутствие повтора артикля (the fan and gloves) указывает на единичность денотативного фрагмента, соответствующего артиклевой синтагме.

Указанные факты английской речи позволяют заключить, что артикли - это служебные слова, функционально связанные с единицами речи. Этот вывод позволяет более адекватно интерпретировать характер участия артиклей в организации синтаксиса английской речи. Неразрывная связь артиклей с явлениями речи, зависимость их употребления от специфики речевого мышления говорящих, предполагает особое внимание к разграничению существительного как единицы языка и существительного как слова в составе речи. Даже при употреблении артиклей с одиночными существительными (the fan), артикли выделяют и характеризуют такие существительные не как слова в языке, а именно как слова в речи. С другой стороны, функциональная связь артиклей с единицами речи позволяет утверждать, что в приведенных ниже высказываниях артикли характеризуют не непосредственно следующие за ними существительные, а целые фрагменты текста, соответствующие артиклевым синтагмам.

… and we said it in a tone that seemed to somehow imply that we were surprised that George should have come out so sensible (Jerome. “Three Men in a Boat”). « … и в интонации наших слов содержался намек на удивление по поводу того, что Джордж должен был бы оказаться столь разумным».

Единицы речи, выделяемые с помощью артиклей, отличаются большим разнообразием с точки зрения лексико-грамматической структуры. Часто они представляют собой одиночное существительное в речи (т.е. очень короткий отрезок текста), но чаще соответствуют более значительным по объему синтагмам; в целом состав синтагмы зависит от конкретного высказывания.

In recording from time to time some of the curious experiences and interesting recollections which I associate with my long and intimate friendship with Mr. Sherlock Holmes, I have continually been faced with difficulties caused by his own aversion to publicity (Conan Doyle. “The Devil’s Foot”). «Записывая время от времени некоторые любопытные случаи и интересные воспоминания, связанные с моей многолетней дружбой с г-ном Шерлоком Холмсом, я постоянно сталкиваюсь со сложностями, вызванными его собственным неприятием гласности».

Характер использования артиклей в английской речи говорит о том, что постоянной функцией артиклей является формирование смысловых отношений в английском высказывании. Функция артиклей, связанная с обозначением начала речевых единиц, входящих в состав высказывания, может быть названа делимитативной. Отмечая начало речевой единицы, артикль тем самым выделяет и всю речевую единицу, окончание которой зависит от смысловых отношений в тексте, и как правило, у говорящих не возникает сложностей в определении конечной границы той синтагмы, начало которой отмечено артиклем. Сказанное не требует каких-либо оговорок в отношении устной речи, где в организации синтагматической структуры высказывания участвуют просодико-интонационные факторы. Если же говорить об отражении устной речи на письме, то в письменных текстах просодико-интонационной составляющей устной речи соответствуют знаки пунктуации, используемые в целях графической фиксации смысловых отношений в высказывании в тех случаях, когда отсутствие такой фиксации затрудняет адекватное восприятие текста.

I walked down the narrow passage between the double row of sleepers, holding my breath to keep out the vile, stupefying fumes of the drug, and looking about for the manager (Conan Doyle. “The Man with the Twisted Lip”). «Я спустился по узкому проходу между двумя рядами спящих людей, сдерживая дыхание, чтобы не чувствовать неприятный запах воздуха, нейтрализующего наркотические пары, и оглядываясь по сторонам в поисках менеджера».

Хотелось бы подчеркнуть, что делимитативная функция артиклей не зависит от контекста и представляет собой ингерентное свойство артиклей, предписанное им системой языка: в системе английского грамматического строя наличествуют специальные слова - артикли, основной задачей которых является организация синтаксиса речи посредством выделения слов и синтагм в составе высказывания. Говоря о делимитации речи (текста как речевого произведения) при помощи артиклей, нельзя отвлекаться от высказывания как основной единицы, формирование которой является задачей артиклей. Во всяком случае, не следует сводить функциональную нагрузку артиклей к выделению речевых единиц, более мелких, чем высказывание.

How he envies the wretch, with a soul wrapt in steel! // His pleasures are scarce, yet his troubles are few, // Who laughs at the pang that he never can feel, // And dreads not the anguish of Love’s last Adieu! (Byron “Love’s last Adieu”). «Как завидует изгнаннику его душа, закрытая железом! // Его радости скудны, и не печалится // тот, кто смеется над острой болью, которую никогда не сможет почувствовать, // и не боится муки последнего прощания с Любовью!».

Цитата из Байрона интересна тем, что в ней ярко проявляется комплексный характер той функции, которую мы условно назвали делимитативной, ее значимость для формирования структуры всего высказывания. Существительное wretch выделено определенным артиклем как самостоятельная речевая единица, на что указывает запятая, стоящая после этого слова. Иначе говоря, выделяя слово wretch, определенный артикль в комплексе с просодико-интонационными факторами указывает на то, что словосочетание with a soul wrapt in steel не входит в артиклевую синтагму: следовательно, оно представляет собой самостоятельный коммуникативный элемент, связанный по смыслу с предикатом envies как обстоятельство образа действия. Выделение речевых единиц с помощью артиклей необходимо для формирования всего комплекса синтаксических отношений в высказывании, - именно поэтому английские артикли должны рассматриваться как важнейшее синтаксическое средство наряду с другими разрядами служебных слов (предлогами и союзами). В связи со сказанным напомним, что в работах А.И. Смирницкого к ведению грамматики отнесены все организующие моменты, отличающие связную речь от простой совокупности представленных в ней слов: грамматические моменты в структуре словоформ, грамматические функции служебных слов (артиклей, союзов, предлогов) и просодико-интонационные контуры высказывания (Смирницкий 1957: 40). Взаимодействие последних с артиклями при формировании смысловой структуры английского высказывания явствует из анализа рассмотренных нами примеров.

Итак, делимитативная функция артиклей соответствует синтаксической нагрузке, возложенной на них языком, и представляет собой грамматическое явление в языке аналитического строя. В качестве служебных слов артикли, кроме того, обладают и лексическим значением; выделяя единицы речи (слова и синтагмы) в силу своей грамматической функции, они, кроме того, сообщают дополнительную информацию о таких синтагмах, соответствующую своим лексическим значениям.

2. Лексические значения артиклей как информация о единицах речи

Сравним два высказывания:

On the wider level of a mountain’s head, // (I knew not where, but ‘twas some faery place) // Their pinions, ostrich-like, for sails outspread, // Two lovely children run an endless race, // A sister and a brother! (Coleridge. “Time, Real and Imaginary. An Allegory”). «На широкой вершине горы // (Я не знаю, где именно, но это было какое-то волшебное место), // С крыльями, как у страуса, расправленными для полета, // Два очаровательных ребенка соревнуются в бесконечной гонке, // Сестра и брат!».

He was a bad winner and a good loser (Maugham. “The Moon and Sixpence”). «Он плохо выигрывал, но хорошо проигрывал».

В первом высказывании двум существительным с неопределенным артиклем соответствуют разные денотаты, в то время как в последнем высказывании словосочетаниями с неопределенным артиклем обозначен один и тот же денотат. Какие сущности характеризует неопределенный артикль в последнем примере? Тождественны или различны такие сущности, характеризуемые артиклями?

Если бы артикли были функционально связаны с единицами языка, то в последнем примере артикль в обоих случаях характеризовал бы одну и ту же сущность (денотат соответствующих именных групп). Однако артикли функционально связаны с единицами речи (синтагмами), откуда следует, что в последнем примере неопределенный артикль сообщает информацию о разных сущностях при тождестве денотатов соответствующих словосочетаний.

Значения артиклей нередко описываются как информация о денотате соответствующего существительного или именной группы (часто - как информация о принадлежности денотата к соответствующему классу объектов). Утверждение о функциональной связи артиклей с единицами речи не позволяет рассматривать значения артиклей таким образом. В смысловой структуре речевой единицы денотат неотделим от средств его обозначения, и артикли характеризуют не денотативные фрагменты, входящие в смысловую структуру речевых единиц, а всю смысловую структуру последних, т. е. фрагменты денотативной ситуации, обозначенные языковыми средствами. Подчеркнем, что лексические значения артиклей характеризуют не денотаты существительных или словосочетаний, а речевое содержание последних. Отметим также, что термин «денотативная отнесенность», часто используемый при описании содержания артиклей, как нельзя лучше соответствует специфике информации, сообщаемой артиклями о единицах речи.

3. Лексическое содержание определенного артикля

Для того чтобы выяснить, каким образом определенный артикль характеризует выделяемую им единицу речи (лексическое значение определенного артикля), важно установить запреты, т. е. те контекстные или ситуативные условия, в которых использование определенного артикля невозможно. Ввиду интерпретационного характера использования любой языковой единицы, в том числе и определенного артикля, эти запреты будут лучше видны при вещных обозначениях (в терминах Г. Фреге). Какие ситуации делают невозможным использование словосочетаний с определенным артиклем? Ответ очень прост, - это ситуации, в которых представлено больше одной вещи, о которой может подумать слушающий, услышав словосочетание с определенным артиклем, произнесенное говорящим. Мы не можем употребить определенный артикль перед словосочетанием cup and saucer «чашка и блюдце», находясь в комнате, где на столе стоят две или несколько чайных пар. Если же мы все-таки употребим определенный артикль, то обозначение the cup and saucer «чашка и блюдце» приведет к непониманию со стороны собеседника. Если в комнате три чайных пары (прибора), то говорящий, находясь в комнате, не может сказать the two cups and saucers «две чашки с блюдцами», имея в виду одну из них. Группа, состоящая из трех объектов, допускает три возможных способа разбивки ее на два объекта и один объект. Соответственно, в сознании говорящего возникнет три фрагмента денотативной сферы, которые могли бы быть обозначены одними и теми же языковыми средствами, что тождественно трем вариантам речевого содержания у словосочетания the two cups and saucers «две чашки с блюдцами». Наличие у словосочетания с определенным артиклем трех вариантов денотативной отнесенности и, соответственно, трех вариантов речевого содержания в этом случае не будет соответствовать значению определенного артикля, сообщающего информацию об одном варианте денотативной отнесенности у словосочетания the two cups and saucers и, соответственно, об одном варианте его речевого содержания.

Указывая на единичность или инвариантность содержания соответствующего слова или словосочетания в речи, определенный артикль характеризует такое слово или словосочетание как однозначное. Если говорить об этом явлении с точки зрения знаковой теории языка, можно сказать, что определенный артикль характеризует соответствующее слово или словосочетание как знаковую структуру и сообщает о тесной связи между обозначаемым фрагментом денотативной ситуации и языковыми средствами, использованными для его обозначения.

4. Лексическое содержание неопределенного артикля

Каковы запреты на использование неопределенного артикля при вещных обозначениях? Существуют ли контексты, в которых неопределенный артикль не может быть использован? Такие контексты существуют. Это случаи, когда в прагматически определяемых рамках существует лишь один фрагмент денотативной ситуации, удовлетворяющий значению языковых средств, входящих в состав соответствующей синтагмы.

Если говорящий и слушающий сидят за столом, на котором стоит только одна чашка, они не могут использовать словосочетание с неопределенным артиклем a cup для обозначения этой конкретной чашки. Условием употребления неопределенного артикля при обозначении фрагмента вещного мира является наличие в денотативной ситуации нескольких (по меньшей мере, двух) вещных фрагментов, которые могли бы быть обозначены словосочетанием с неопределенным артиклем. Проще говоря, если вещь или фрагмент денотативной ситуации является единственной вещью или фрагментом, который может быть обозначен соответствующими языковыми средствами в рамках прагматически установленной группы вещей или ситуации (в общем случае - в контексте высказывания), то словосочетание с неопределенным артиклем не может быть использовано для обозначения такого фрагмента денотативной ситуации или вещи.

Сказанного достаточно для того, чтобы попытаться описать значение неопределенного артикля. Неопределенный артикль несет информацию о содержании соответствующего слова или словосочетания в речи и указывает на то, что такое содержание рассматривается говорящими как множественное. Характеризуя речевое содержание слова или словосочетания как множественное, неопределенный артикль тем самым указывает на наличие у соответствующего слова или словосочетания вариантов денотативной отнесенности.

Если мы что-то обозначаем в процессе означивания, то мы, вероятно, обозначаем что-то одно, не так ли? Здесь можно задуматься над тем, что же именно мы обозначаем, используя словосочетание с неопределенным артиклем и говоря a star ‘звезда’ или a dog ‘собака’? Обозначаем ли мы что-нибудь конкретное, когда в нашей речи появляется синтагма с неопределенным артиклем? Следующий вопрос касается речевого содержания, т. е. того, о чем думают собеседники при употреблении словосочетания, начинающегося с неопределенного артикля. О чем думает говорящий, произнося словосочетания a professor ‘профессор’, a dirty trick ‘грязная шутка’, a circle of boys ‘круг мальчиков’? О чем думает слушающий, услышав словосочетание an ungracious mutter ‘грубое ругательство’? Представлен ли в речевом мышлении собеседников фиксированный предмет мысли при употреблении словосочетания с неопределенным артиклем? Этот вопрос можно сформулировать иначе: каким образом лексическое значение артикля как количественная характеристика слова в речи или синтагмы модифицирует качественную информацию о семантической структуре речевой единицы, которая вносится знаменательными словами. Как меняется наше восприятие фрагмента текста в зависимости от наличия неопределенного артикля в ряду использованных языковых средств? На последний вопрос можно ответить следующим образом. Неопределенный артикль, указывая на вариантность содержания синтагмы, тем самым указывает на то, что отношения внутри знака являются неплотными, что тождественно частичному соответствию языковых средств денотату.

Неполное соответствие значений знаменательных слов обозначаемому предмету мысли для слушающего оборачивается невозможностью идентифицировать денотат на основе языковых средств. Употребив словосочетание I saw a star ‘Я видел звезду’, говорящий сообщает слушающему о том, что содержание этого словосочетания не следует понимать буквально, ибо каждый из допустимых вариантов его содержания зависит от того, с каким из множества потенциальных денотатов слушающий соотнесет это словосочетание. При референтном употреблении словосочетания с неопределенным артиклем (This is a star ‘Это звезда’) значение артикля как указание на множественность содержания синтагмы сохраняется. Соответственно, сохраняется и идея вариантной денотативной отнесенности: используя указанное словосочетание референтно, говорящий сообщает, во-первых, о частичном соответствии языковых средств денотату и, во-вторых, о том, что данный вариант денотативной отнесенности словосочетания не является единственно возможным.

В ситуации отсутствия фиксированного содержания у словосочетания с неопределенным артиклем, значение знаменательных слов, входящих в состав такого словосочетания, воспринимается говорящими как инвариантный семантический признак, который является обязательной и неотъемлемой частью любого возможного варианта речевого содержания. Речевая семантика признака возникает на уровне словосочетания, в состав которого входит неопределенный артикль.

Обратим внимание на то, что лексические значения артиклей образуют привативную оппозицию (один вариант содержания у слова в речи или синтагмы vs. несколько вариантов содержания у слова в речи или синтагмы), и коррелятивность лексических элементов содержания позволяет говорить о наличии в английском языке лексической категории, выраженной артиклями.

В заключении подчеркнем, что характеризуя единицы речи с точки зрения их содержания и указывая на тип денотативной отнесенности слова или словосочетания в речи, артикли не сообщают какой-либо информации о денотатах последних; и в этом заключается специфика лексического содержания артиклей как служебных слов в сравнении с лексическим содержанием слов знаменательных.

5. Артикли как лексико-грамматические единицы в системе английского языка

В заключении хотелось бы обратить внимание на критерий обязательности, обычно используемый при определении грамматического или не-грамматического характера языковых явлений. В работах морфологического направления обязательность понимается исключительно как обязательность выражения грамматического значения в пределах класса словоформ [1]. Напомним, что критерий обязательности является центральным в определении грамматической категории, предложенным Р. О. Якобсоном (Jakobson 1959). Указанный критерий соответствует важнейшим положениям работ А. И. Смирницкого, посвященных соотношению лексического и грамматического значения в слове и, в частности, мысли о том, что слово существует в единстве словоформ (Смирницкий 1954, 1955, 1956: 21-26, 1957: 16-30). Представляется, однако, что критерию обязательности соответствуют не только словоформы определенного класса, этому критерию соответствуют и синтаксические средства, в частности, артикли как разряд служебных слов. Несмотря на то, что употребление артиклей при существительных по указанным причинам не является обязательным [2], артикли все же соответствуют критерию обязательности выражения грамматического. Артикли необходимы для оформления смысловых отношений в английском высказывании, последнее не существует вне системы артиклей. Говорящие на английском языке употребляют артикли в соответствии со своим коммуникативным замыслом, но любое употребление артиклей обязательно сопровождается осуществлением их грамматической (делимитативной) функции, связанной с формированием смысловых связей в высказывании, и в этом смысле артикли как служебные слова соответствуют критерию обязательности и представляют собой явление английского грамматического строя.

Что же касается требования регулярности, которое иногда рассматривают как критерий грамматического характера явления, на наш взгляд, регулярность употребления тех или иных единиц языка в речи говорит об их функциональной нагрузке, а не о системном статусе таких единиц языка. При этом высокая функциональная нагрузка тех или иных единиц, конечно, свидетельствует о значимости соответствующих единиц для системы языка.

Английские артикли регулярно встречаются в английской речи; соответственно, те или иные слова в речи или синтагмы регулярно оказываются не только выделенными в составе высказывания, но и охарактеризованными по линии лексических значений артиклей. Используя артикли, говорящий на английском языке регулярно сообщает слушающим информацию о способе прочтения (или характере интерпретации) соответствующих фрагментов текста.

Итак, артикли как разряд служебных слов английского языка соответствуют основному критерию грамматического (критерию обязательности) и представляют собой важнейшее синтаксическое средство. Кроме того, высокая функциональная нагрузка артиклей делает эти служебные слова характерным признаком английской речи и центральным явлением в системе английского грамматического строя.

Примечания

1. См. в связи с этим (Плунгян 1998).

2. Один из побочных выводов данной работы заключается в том, что в английском языке грамматическая категория определенности-неопределенности в системе существительного отсутствует.

Литература

Аналитические конструкции… - Аналитические конструкции в языках различных типов / Отв. ред. В. М. Жирмунский и О. П. Суник. М.; Л., 1965. Огуречникова 2006 - Огуречникова Н. Л. Английский артикль. К вопросу о количественности в языковом мышлении. М. Плунгян 1998 - Плунгян В.А. Проблемы грамматического значения в современных морфологических теориях (обзор) // Семиотика и информатика. Вып. 36. С. 324-386. Смирницкий 1954 - Смирницкий А. И. К вопросу о слове (проблема тождества слова) // Труды института языкознания АН СССР. Т. IV, М. С. 3-49. Смирницкий 1956 - Смирницкий А. И. Лексикология английского языка. М. Смирницкий 1957 - Смирницкий А. И. Синтаксис английского языка. М. Jakobson 1959 - Jakobson R. Boas’ views on grammatical meaning // The anthropology of Franz Boas: Essays on the Centennial of his birth (Memoir LXXX). Menasha.

Article (grammar)

Articles in European languages indefinite and definite articles only definite articles indefinite and postfixed definite articles only postfixed definite articles no articles

An article is a word that combines with a noun to indicate the type of reference being made by the noun, and may also specify the volume or numerical scope of that reference. The articles in the English language are the and a (the latter with variant form an). An article is sometimes called a noun marker, although this is generally considered to be an archaic term.^[1]

Articles are traditionally considered to form a separate part of speech. Linguists place them in the class of determiners.

Articles can have various functions:^[2]

A definite article (English the) is used before singular and plural nouns that refer to a particular member of a group.

The cat is on the red mat.

An indefinite article (English a, an) is used before singular nouns that refer to any member of a group.

A cat is a mammal.

A partitive article indicates an indefinite quantity of a mass noun; there is no partitive article in English, though the quantifiers some or any often have that function.

French: Voulez-vous du café ? ("Would you like some coffee?" or "Do you want coffee?")

A zero article is the absence of an article (e.g. English indefinite plural), used in some languages in contrast with the presence of one.

Cats love fish.

Linguists interested in X-bar theory causally link zero articles to nouns lacking a determiner.^[3]

Logic of definite articles

In English, a definite article is mostly used to refer to an object or person that has been previously introduced. For example:

At last they came to a piece of rising ground, from which they plainly distinguished, sleeping on a distant mountain, a mammoth bear.... Then they requested the eldest to try and slip the belt over the bear's head.

— Mark Twain, Life on the Mississippi, appendix D

In this example, a bear becomes the bear because a "mammoth bear" had been previously introduced into the narrative, and no other bear was involved in the story. Only previously introduced subjects, and unique subjects, where the speaker can assume that the audience is aware of the identity of the referent (The government has increased tax) typically take definite articles in English.

By contrast, the indefinite article is used in situations where a new subject is being introduced, and the speaker assumes that the hearer is not yet familiar with the subject:

There was an old woman who lived in a shoe.

— A traditional nursery rhyme

Reflecting its historical derivation from the number word one, the English indefinite article can only be used with singular count nouns. For mass nouns, or for plurals, adjectives or adjective phrases like some or a few substitute for it, or it is omitted. In English, pronouns, nouns already having another non-number determiner, and proper nouns usually do not use articles. Otherwise in English, unlike many other languages, singular count nouns take an article; either a, an, or the.^[4] Also in English word order, articles precede any adjectives that modify the applicable noun.^[5]

In French, the masculine definite article le (meaning the) is contracted with a following word if that word begins with a vowel sound. When the French words de and le are to be used sequentially (meaning of the), the word du is used instead, in addition to the above mentioned use of du as a partitive article.

In various languages other than English, the form of the article may vary according to the grammatical gender, number or case of the noun it combines with. (In some languages the article may be the only indicator of the case, e.g. Der Hut des Napoleon, Napoleon's hat.) Many languages do not use articles at all, and may use other ways of indicating old vs. new information, such as topic-comment constructions.

The

"the" redirects here. For other uses, see the (disambiguation).

The word the is the only definite article in the English language, and the most frequently used word in English.^[6]

The article "the" is used with singular and plural, and countable and uncountable nouns when both the speaker and listener would know the thing or idea already. The article the is often used as the very first part of a noun phrase in English. For example:

The end of time begins next Tuesday, at a quarter past four, just after fish and chips.

Here, "the end of time" is a noun phrase. The use of the signals that the reference is to a specific and unique instance of the concept (such as person, object, or idea) expressed in the noun phrase. Here, the implication is that there may be but are not multiple 'ends of time'; which 'end of time' it is that is being referred to is not ambiguous, because time can (supposedly) only end once.

The time is 3:29 p.m.

There are many times, but the meaning here is the time now, of which (at the moment the sentence was produced) there is only one.

In normative spoken English, it takes two forms, the vowel being a schwa before a word starting with a consonant, and otherwise an [iː] sound.^[7]

Etymology

Linguists believe that the common ancestor of the Indo-European languages (i.e. the Proto-Indo-European language) did not have a definite article. Most of the languages in this family do not have definite or indefinite articles; there is no article in Latin, Sanskrit, Persian, nor in some modern Indo-European languages, especially in Slavic languages — Russian, Polish and Czech, etc. (the only Slavic languages that have articles are Bulgarian and Macedonian), nor in the Baltic languages—-Latvian, Lithuanian and Latgalian. Classical Greek has a definite article, but Homeric Greek did not. In the etymologies of these and many other languages, the definite article arose from a demonstrative pronoun or adjective changing its usage; compare the fate of the Latin demonstrative "ille" (meaning "that") in the Romance languages, becoming French le, la, l’, and les, Spanish el, la, lo, los, and las, Italian il, la, lo, l’, i, gli, and le, and Portuguese o, os, a, and as.

In some languages, such as Scandinavian, Bulgarian, Macedonian (Macedonian has three defined articles) or Romanian, the definite article is not always a separate word but is sometimes attached to the end of the noun it governs (i.e. it is postfixed):

Icelandic: hestur, horse; hesturinn, the horse Norwegian: stol, chair; stolen, the chair Bulgarian: стол stol, chair; столът stolǎt, the chair (subject); стола stola, the chair (object) Romanian: drum, road; drumul, the road Macedonian: столот (stolot) the chair, столов (stolov) this chair, столон (stolon) that chair,

The and that are common developments from the same Old English system. Old English had a definite article se, in the masculine gender, seo (feminine), and þæt (neuter). In Middle English these had all merged into þe, the ancestor of the Modern English word the.

In Middle English, the (be) was frequently abbreviated as a þ with a small e above it, similar to the abbreviation for that, which was a þ with a small t above it. During the latter Middle English and Early Modern English periods, the letter Thorn (þ) in its common script, or cursive, form came to resemble a y shape. As such the use of a y with an e above it as an abbreviation became common. This can still be seen in reprints of the 1611 edition of the King James Version of the Bible in places such as Romans 15:29, or in the Mayflower Compact. Note that the article was never pronounced with a y sound, even when so written. (However the modern, 19th and 20th century pseudo-archaic usage such as "Ye Olde Englishe Tea Shoppe" can be pronounced with a y sound.)

Reduction and omission

In news headlines and informal writing, such as notes or diaries, the definite article and some other particles are often omitted, for example, "Must pick up prescription at pharmacy today."

In some Northern England dialects of English, the is pronounced [t̪ə] (with a dental t) or as a glottal stop, usually written in eye dialect as <t>; in some dialects it reduces to nothing. This is known as definite article reduction; see that article for further details.

In dialects that do not have /ð/ (voiced dental fricative), the is pronounced with a voiced dental plosive, as in /d̪ə/ or /d̪iː/).

Geographic uses

In English most cities and countries never take the definite article, but there are many that do. It is commonly used with many country names that derive from names of island groups (the Philippines), mountain ranges (the Lebanon), deserts (the Sudan), seas, rivers and geographic regions (the Middle East).^[8] Such use is declining, but for some countries it remains common. Since the independence of Ukraine (or the Ukraine), most style guides have advised dropping the article^[9], in part because the Ukrainian Government was concerned about a similar issue involving prepositions. Another example is Argentina, which is now more usual than 'the Argentine', which is old fashioned, although others continue, such as The Bronx and The Hague.

The definite article is always used for countries whose names are descriptions of the form of the state rather than being purely geographical; for example, the United States, the Soviet Union, and the Czech Republic.

The U.S. Department of State and CIA World Factbook show the definite article with only two countries: The Bahamas and The Gambia.

Similarly, in other languages some geographic names take the article while others do not: die Schweiz, Switzerland, in German; les Pays-Bas, the Netherlands or Low Countries, in French.

Pronunciation

According to the Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary, "the" is pronounced with a schwa (as in "uh") before words beginning with consonants (e.g. b, c, d, f), and usually with a different vowel sound /i/ (as "y" in "easy") before words beginning with vowels and in cases of proper nouns or emphasis.^[7]

References

Articles, Determiners and Quantifiers
The Use and Non-Use of Articles
[1] Master, Peter (1997) "The English Article System: acquisition, function, and pedagogy" in: System, Volume 25, Issue 2, pp. 215–232
Greenbaum, Sidney (1996) The Oxford English Grammar. Oxford University Press ISBN 0-19-861250-8
Disterheft, Dorothy (2004) Advanced Grammar. Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice-Hall ISBN 0-13-048820-8
World English. "The 500 Most Commonly Used Words in the English Language". http://www.world-english.org/english500.htm. Retrieved 2007-01-14.
^a ^b "the - definition". Merriam Webster Online Dictionary. http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/the.
Swan, Michael How English Works, p. 25
Ukraine or "the Ukraine"? by Andrew Gregorovich InfoUkes.com

External links

WALS - Feature/Chapter 38: Indefinite Articles
WALS - Feature/Chapter 37: Definite Articles
Vietnamese learners mastering English articles
"The Definite Article: Acknowledging 'The' in Index Entries," Glenda Browne, The Indexer, vol. 22, no. 3 April 2001, pp. 119–22.
Low MH 2005: "The Phenomenon of the Word THE in English — discourse functions and distribution patterns" — a dissertation that surveys the use of the word 'the' in English text.
When Do You Use Articles: A, An, The

Лекция 15

Adjective is a part of speech characterized by the following typical features:

The lexico-grammatical meaning of “attributes (of substantives)”. By attributes we mean different properties of substantives, such as their size, colour, position in space, material, psychic state of persons, etc.
The morphological category of the degrees of comparison.
The characteristic combinability with nouns (a beautiful girl), link verbs (…is clever), adverbs, mostly those of degree (a very clever boy), the so-called “prop word” one (the grey one).
The stem-building affixes –ful, -less, -ish, -ous, -ive, -ic, un-, pre-, in-, etc.
Its functions of an attribute and a predicative complement.

The adjective expresses the categorial semantics of property of a substance а each adjective used in text presupposes relation to some noun. Unlike nouns, adjectives do not possess a full nominative value.

Classification of adjectives. Хаймович Б.С. и Роговская Б.И.

With regard to the category of the degrees of comparison adjectives fall under 2 lexico-grammatical subclasses: comparables and non-comparables. The nucleus of the latter is composed of derived adjectives like wooden, Crimean, mathematical, etc. а Theses adjectives are called relative as distinct from all other adjectives called qualitative. (Хаймович Б.С. и Роговская Б.И.)

Most qualitative adjectives build up opposemes of comparison, but some do not:

adjectives that in themselves express the highest degree of a quality: supreme, extreme
those having the suffix –ish which indicates the degree of quality: reddish, whitish
those denoting qualities which are not compatible with the idea of comparison.: deaf, dead, lame, perpendicular.

All the adjectives are traditionally divided into 2 large subclasses: qualitative and relative (Blokh М.Я).

Relative adjectives express such properties of a substance as are determined by the direct relation of the substance to some other substance (e.g. wood – a wooden hut, history – a historical event).

The nature of this relationship in adjectives is best revealed by definitional correlations: e.g. a wooden hut – a hut made of wood; a historical event – an event referring to a certain period of history.

Qualitative adjectives, as different from relative ones, denote various qualities of substances which admit of a quantitative estimation, i.e. of establishing their correlative quantitative measure. The measure of a quality can be estimated as high or low, adequate or inadequate, sufficient or insufficient, optimal or excessive (e.g. a difficult task – a very difficult task).

!!! Substances can possess such qualities as are incompatible with the idea of degrees of comparison а adjectives denoting these qualities, while belonging to the qualitative subclasses, are in the ordinary use incapable of forming degrees of comparison (e.g. extinct, immobile, deaf, final, fixed).

Many adjectives considered under the heading of relative still can form degrees of comparison, thereby, as it were, transforming the denoted relative property of a substance into such as can be graded quantitatively (e.g. a military design – of a less military design – of a more military design). -> The adjective functions may be grammatically divided into ‘evaluative’ and ‘specificative’. One and the same adjective, irrespective of its being relative or qualitative, can be used either in one or the other function.

e.g. good is basically qualitative, but used as a grading term in teaching it acquires the specificative value (bad, satisfactory, good, excellent).

The category of the degrees of comparison of adjectives is the system of opposemes (long – longer – longest) showing qualitative distinctions of qualities. More exactly it shows whether the adjective denotes the property of some substance absolutely, or relatively as a higher or the highest amount of the property in comparison with that of some other substances: ‘positive’, ‘comparative’ and ‘superlative’ degrees. Хаймович Б.С. и Роговская Б.И.

The positive degree is not marked. We may speak of a zero morpheme. The comparative and superlative degrees are built up either synthetically (by affixation or suppletivity) or analytically (with the help of word-morphemes more and most), which depends mainly on the structure of the stem.

Some authors treat more beautiful and the most beautiful not as analytical forms, but as free syntactical combinations of adverbs and adjectives. One of the arguments is that less and least form combinations with adjectives similar to those with more and most: e.g. more beautiful – less beautiful, the most beautiful – the least beautiful. In order to prove that more beautiful is an analytical form of the comparative degree, we have to prove that more is a grammatical word-morpheme identical with the morpheme –er.

More an –er are identical as o their meaning of ‘a higher degree’.
Their distribution is complementary. Together they cover all the adjectives having the degrees of comparison. Those adjectives which have comparative opposites with suffix –er have usually no parallel opposites with more and vice versa. e.g. beautiful – more beautiful (not beautifuller),nice – nicer (not more nice)

This is not the case with less:

Less and –er have different, even opposite meanings.
The distribution of –er and less is not complementary. One and the same lexical morpheme regularly attaches both less and –er: prettier – less pretty, safer – less safe.

Besides, unlike more, less is regularly replaced by not so: less pretty = not so pretty. These facts show that more in more beautiful is a grammatical word-morpheme identical with the morpheme –er of the comparative degree greater, а more beautiful is an analytical form.

A new objection is raised in the case of the superlative degree. In the expression a most interesting theory the indefinite article is used whereas a prettiest child is impossible а there is some difference between the synthetic superlative and the analytical one.

One must not forget that more and most are not only word-morphemes of comparison. They can be notional words. They are polysemantic and polyfunctional words. One of the meanings of most is ‘very, exceedingly’ (a most interesting book). The notional word more in the meaning ‘to greater extent’ can also be used to modify adjectives, as in its more grey than brown. More grey here is a combination of words. The positive degree does not convey the idea of comparison. Its meaning is absolute. Jespersen: the positive degree is, a matter of fact, negative in relation to comparison. The comparative degree and the superlative degree are both relative in meaning (Peter is older than Mary – Peter is not old).

There is good ground to speak of 2 forms of comparison: the positive degree and the relative degree which exists in 2 varieties – the comparative degree and the superlative degree (Smirnitsky).

Statives.

Among the words signifying properties of a nounal referent there is a leximic set which claims to be recognied as a separate part of speech, a class of words different form the adjectives in its class-forming features. These are words built up by the prefix a- and denoting different states, mostly of temporary duration. Here belong lexemes like afraid, agog, adrift, ablaze. These are treated as predicative adjectives in traditional grammar (Blokh М.Я.).

Notional words signify states and are specially used as predicatives. The newly identified parts of speech are called the “category of state“ (Russian words: тепло, зябко, одиноко, радостно, жаль, лень). The term “words of the category of state” being rather cumbersome form the technical point of view was later changed into “stative words” or “statives” (Scherbs and Vinogradov).

The part-of-speech interpretation of the statives is not shared by all linguists.

Хаймович Б.С. и Роговская Б.И: name them statives are ‘adlinks’ (on analogy with adverbs), they are opposed to adjectives

Substantivization of adjectives. Adjectivization of nouns.

Among the substantivized adjectives there is a set characterized by hybrid lexico-grammatical features. On analogy of verbids these words might be called “adjectivids” (Blokh).

The adjectivids fall into 2 main grammatical subgroups:

pluralia tantum (the English, the rich, the unemployed) -> sets of people
singularia tantum (the invisible, the abstract)а abstract ideas

Лекция 16

The Adjective

Имена прилагательные в английском языке не изменяются по родам, числам и падежам:

a new book	новая книга
a new building	новое здание
a new house	новый дом
new houses	новые дома

Имена прилагательные в английском языке изменяются только по степеням сравнения.

§61. По своему составу имена прилагательные могут быть: простыми, производными и сложными.

Простые -это такие имена прилагательные, в исходной (основной) форме которых нет суффикса или префикса red красный, long длинный, tall высокий.

Производные -имена прилагательные, в составе которых есть суффикс или префикс или тот и другой одновременно: reasonable разумный, useful полезный, unreal нереальный, international интернациональный, международный.

Сложные-имена прилагательные, состоящие двух и более основ, образующих одно слово с единым значением: red-hot раскаленный докрасна, double-edge обоюдоострый.

СТЕПЕНИ СРАВНЕНИЯ (DEGREES OF COMPARISON)

§62. Имена прилагательные в английском языке имеют три степени сравнения: положительную (the Positive Degree), сравнительную (the Comparative Degree) превосходную (the Superlative Degree).

Сравнительная и превосходная степени в английском языке образуются двумя способами: а) посредством прибавления суффиксов и б) с помощью специальных слов.

1. Степени сравнения односложных прилагательых образуются путем прибавления суффиксов к прилагательным в положительной степени: в сравнительной степени прибавляется суффикс -еr, в превосходной степени -суффикс -est.

Таким же способом образуются степени сравнения двусложных прилагательных, оканчивающихся на -lе:

simple простой, humble скромный и т. п.; на -у: happy счастливый, heavy тяжелый и т. п.; на -еr: clever умный, bitter горький, резкий и т. п.; на -ow: narrow узкий, shallow мелкий и т. п., и некоторых других двусложных прилагательных.

Положительная степень

Сравнительная степень

Превосходная степень

short короткий

high высокий

shorter короче, более короткий

higher выше, более высокий

shortest кратчайший, самый короткий

highest высочайший, самый высокий

При образовании степеней сравнения прилагательных путем прибавления суффиксов -еr и -est соблюдаются следующие правила правописания:

1) В написании удваивается конечная согласная буква, если односложное прилагательное оканчивается на одну согласную с предшествующим кратким гласным звуком:

hot	горячий	hotter	hottest
big	большой	bigger	biggest
flat	плоский, ровный	flatter	flattest

2) Конечная гласная у меняется на i перед суффиксами -еr и -est, если гласной у предшествует согласная буква

happy	счастливый	happier	happiest
dry	сухой	drier	driest
но: grey	серый	greyer	greyest

3) Конечная гласная е (немое е) опускается перед фиксами -еr, -est:

large	большой	larger	largest
white	белый	whiter	whitest

2. Второй способ образования степеней сравнения заключается в прибавлении специальных слов к прилагательному в положительной степени: в сравнительной степени прибавляется слово more, в превосходной степени слово most.

Этим способом образуются степени сравнения большинства двусложных и всех многосложных прилагательных:

Положительная степень

Сравнительная степень

Превосходная степень

useful

полезный

more useful

более полезный, полезнее

most useful

самый полезный, наиболее полезный

difficult

трудный

more difficult

более трудный,труднее

most difficult

самый трудный труднейший

numerous

многочисленный

more numerous

более многочисленный

most numerous

самый многочисленный

Для выражения степеней сравнения, указывающих

уменьшение качества или свойства предмета, употребляются слова less в сравнительной степени и least в превосходной степени:

Положительная степень	Сравнительная степень	Превосходная, степень
difficult трудный considerable значительный	less difficult менее трудный less considerable менее значительный	least difficult наименее трудны least considerable наименее значительный

§63. Некоторые прилагательные образуют степени сравнения от других корней, так же как и соответствующие слова в русском языке:

Положительная степень

Сравнительная степень

Превосходная степень

good

хороший

better

лучше

best

лучший, самый лучший, наилучший

bad

плохой

worse

хуже

worst

худший, самый плохой, наихудший

little

маленький

less

меньше

least

самый маленький, наименьший

much, many

много

больше

most

наибольший

Общие замечания по употреблению степеней сравнения

. Имя существительное, определяемое прилагательным в превосходной степени, употребляется с определеным артиклем:

Baikal is the largest freshwater lake in Europe and Asia. (N.)

-- Байкал-самое большое пресноводное озеро в Европе и Азии.

The most common acceleration is that of freely falling bodies.

-- Наиболее обычное ускорение-это ускорение свободно падающих тел.

Артикль сохраняется перед именем прилагательным превосходной степени, даже если существительное не выражено, а лишь подразумевается:

At present he was just one of the mechanics, the youngest and least experienced,(R. Gr.)

-- В настоящее время он был просто одним из механиков, самым молодым и наименее опытным.

Примечания.

1. Сочетание most с прилагательным в положительной степени может обозначать не высшую степень качества предмета по сравнению с другими предметами, а просто очень высокую степень качества безотносительно к другим предметам. В этом случае определяемое существительное имеет неопределенный артикль:

a most interesting article -- очень интересная статья,

a most difficult problem -- очень трудная проблема.

2. Слово most может употребляться перед именем существительным во множественном числе в функции определения этого существительного. В этом случае most переводится на русский язык словом большинство. Сочетание most of переводится большинство из:

Not long ago space travel seemed to meet people a fantastic idea

-- He так давно межпланетный перелет казался большинству людей фантастической идеей,

Even today we cannot directly measure the dimensions of most molecules.

-- Даже в настоящее время мы не можем непосредственно измерить размеры большинства молекул,

Most of them were factory girls aged from twelve to twenty, (Е. G.)

-- Большинство из них были фабрнчные работницы в возрасте от 12 до 20 лет.

§65. При сравнении употребляется союз than чем. Для того чтобы при сравнении избежать повторения одного и того же имени существительного, употребляется слово заместитель one (мн. ч. ones). Это слово переводится на русский язык тем существительным, которое оно заменяет, или совсем не переводится.

A small lamp has a higher resistance than a large one.

-- Маленькая лампа имеет большее сопротивлен чем большая (лампа).

Для замены ранее упомянутого существительного употребляется также местоимение that в единственном числе во множественном числе these, those.

§66. Для усиления сравнительной степени перед прилагательными и наречиями употребляются слова more значительно, гораздо (by) far значительно, гораздо; still еще; ever еще и др.:

much more	значительно (гораздо) больше
much less	значительно (гораздо) меньше
much shorter	значительно (гораздо) короче
much more useful	значительно (гораздо) более полезн
still (yet) colder	еще холоднее
still (yet) more important	еще более важный
far better	значительно (гораздо) лучше
ever closer	еще теснее

In technics we have to do with pressure much greater than that of air.

-- В технике нам приходится иметь дело с давлением значительно болышим чем давление воздуха.

The devouring flames were repelled by the yet more powerful wind. (E. G.)

-- Всепоглощающее пламя пожара отбрасывалось еще более мощным ветром.

§67. При сравнении одинакового качества употребляется двойной союз as... as такой (же) ... как (и), так (же) ... как (и). При отрицании одинакового качества употребляется двойной союз not so... as не такой... как:

The land was flat-as flat as a table. (Th. Dr.)

-- Земля была плоской - такой же плоской, как стол.

Molecules of gas are moving as fast as bullets.

-- Молекулы газа движутся так же быстро, как пули..

The bottom of the Arctic Ocean is not so smooth as old charts indicated. (N.)

-- Дно Северного Ледовитого океана не такое гладкое, как показывали старые морские карты.

Если перед прилагательным в положительной степени, (стоящим между союзом as...as, употребляются счетные наречия half в два раза меньше, twice в два раза больше или количественное числительное со словом time раз, то такие сочетания переводятся следующим образом:

half as much as...	в два раза меньше, чем...
twice as much as...	в два раза больше, чем...
three times as long as...	в три раза длиннее, чем...
four times as high as...	в четыре раза выше, чем...

Примечание. При переводе на русский язык можно употребить конструкцию без союза чем. Сравните:

Thе ice in the camp melted five times as fast as the ice on the floe. (N.)

-- Лед в лагере таял в пять раз быстрее, чем лед на плавучей льдине.

The coefficient of expansion of air is about twenty times as much as that of mercury.

-- Коэффициент расширения воздуха приблизительно в 20 раз выше коэффициента расширения ртути.

При сравнении союз as... as может быть опущен. В этом случае прилагательное также опускается.

Helium has four times the mass, and twice the charge of a proton. (M. W.)

-- Масса гелия больше массы протона в четыре раза, а заряд-в два раза.

СУБСТАНТИВАЦИЯ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫХ

§68. В английском языке, так же как и в русском языке, некоторые прилагательные утратили свое значение признака предмета и приобрели предметное значение, перешли в класс существительных. Перейдя в класс имени существительных, такие слова приобретают и свойства существительных (артикль и другие определители существительных, окончание -s во множественном числе, притяжательный падеж) и выполняют в предложении синтактические функции существительного: они могут быть подлежащим, предикативным членом, дополнением и могут иметь определение. Однако сами они не могут выступать в синтаксической функции определения:

"The whites have left the shore in their canoes,"answered one of the savages. "There is a maiden among them and some of our braves want wives." (F. С.)

-- "Белые покинули берег в своих лодках,-ответил один из дикарей.- Cреди них есть девушка, a некоторым из наших храбрецов нужны жены".

§69. К субстантивированным прилагательным oтносятся названия национальностей, которые пишутся с прописной буквы: a Russian русский; a Bulgarian болгар a German немец; an American американец.

При обозначении нации в целом перед названием циональности стоит определенный артикль: the Russian русские, the Swedes шведы.

Названия национальностей, оканчивающиеся на -ch, -ss, -se не принимают окончания -s во множественном числе: the English англичане, the French французы the Dutch голландцы; the Swiss швейцарцы; the Chinse китайцы; the Japanese японцы.

Примечание. Для обозначения отдельных членов нации к названию национальностей добавляется слово man (в мужском ед. ч.), woman (в женском роде ед. ч.) и men, women во множественном числе:

an Englishman англичанин, an Englishwoman англичанка, Englishmen два англичанина;

a Frenchman француз, a Frenchwoman француженка, two French women две француженки и т. д.

Названия национальностей, оканчивающиеся на -se, имеют одну и ту же форму в единственном и множественном числе: a Chinese китаец, two Chinese два китайца, a Swiss швейцарец, two Swiss два швейцарца.

§70. Некоторые субстантивированные прилагательные не обладают всеми свойствами существительного. Следующие субстантивированные прилагательные, обозначающие всех лиц, обладающих одним и тем же признаком, имеют значение только множественного числа, не принимают окончания -s и употребляются только с определенным артиклем: the young молодые, the rich богатые, the poor бедные, the blind слепые и т. д.

То the young all roads in life are open, and the old receive their due regard,

-- Молодым везде у нас дорога, старикам везде у нас почет.

During the great plague in London, in 1665, the rich were leaving the town, while the poor remained and were dying in great numbers.

-- Во время Великой чумы в Лондоне в 1665 г. богатые покидали город, а бедные оставались, и многие умирали.

В значение существительных во множественном числе могут также употребляться и причастия, которые перешли в разряд прилагательных: the wounded раненые, the killed уоитые, the unemployed безработные и т. д.:

They had to carry the wounded from the ambulances to the hospital. (J. А.)

-- Им пришлось носить раненых из санитарных машин в госпиталь.

В значении существительных в единственном числе могут употребляться некоторые прилагательные, обозначающие отвлеченные понятия: the good благо, добро, польза, the singular единственное число, the plural множественное число, the past прошлое; прошедшее время (в грамматике), the present настоящее, the future будущее и некоторые др.

I am telling you this for your good. (A. S. H.) -- Я говорю вам это для вашей пользы.

That's the good of doing that? (H. P.) -- Что хорошего в этом? (букв.: поступать так?)

The singular of "children" Child is "child". (A. S. H.) -- Единственное число от слова children.

It's now a thing of the past. -- Теперь это дело прошлого.

ФУНКЦИИ ПРИЛАГАТЕЛЬНЫХ В ПРЕДЛОЖЕНИИ

§71. Имена прилагательные выступают в предложении в функции определения и именной чисти сказуемого;

He had dark living eyes and straight black hair. (M. W.)

-- У него были темные живые глаза и прямые черные волосы.

Не was standing and his eyes seemed very dark.(M. W.)

-- Он стоял, и его глаза каэались очень темными.

Имя прилагательное в функции определения обычно занимает место перед существительным.

Лекция 17

Adverbs

Конец формы

Definition

Adverbs are words that modify

a verb (He drove slowly. — How did he drive?)
an adjective (He drove a very fast car. — How fast was his car?)
another adverb (She moved quite slowly down the aisle. — How slowly did she move?)

As we will see, adverbs often tell when, where, why, or under what conditions something happens or happened. Adverbs frequently end in -ly; however, many words and phrases not ending in -ly serve an adverbial function and an -ly ending is not a guarantee that a word is an adverb. The words lovely, lonely, motherly, friendly, neighborly, for instance, are adjectives:

That lovely woman lives in a friendly neighborhood.

If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb (modifying the verb of a sentence), it is called an Adverb Clause:

When this class is over, we're going to the movies.

When a group of words not containing a subject and verb acts as an adverb, it is called an adverbial phrase. Prepositional phrases frequently have adverbial functions (telling place and time, modifying the verb):

He went to the movies.
She works on holidays.
They lived in Canada during the war.

And Infinitive phrases can act as adverbs (usually telling why):

She hurried to the mainland to see her brother.
The senator ran to catch the bus.

But there are other kinds of adverbial phrases:

He calls his mother as often as possible.

Adverbs can modify adjectives, but an adjective cannot modify an adverb. Thus we would say that "the students showed a really wonderful attitude" and that "the students showed a wonderfully casual attitude" and that "my professor is really tall, but not "He ran real fast."

Like adjectives, adverbs can have comparative and superlative forms to show degree.

Walk faster if you want to keep up with me.
The student who reads fastest will finish first.

We often use more and most, less and least to show degree with adverbs:

With sneakers on, she could move more quickly among the patients.
The flowers were the most beautifully arranged creations I've ever seen.
She worked less confidently after her accident.
That was the least skillfully done performance I've seen in years.

The as — as construction can be used to create adverbs that express sameness or equality: "He can't run as fast as his sister."

A handful of adverbs have two forms, one that ends in -ly and one that doesn't. In certain cases, the two forms have different meanings:

He arrived late.
Lately, he couldn't seem to be on time for anything.

In most cases, however, the form without the -ly ending should be reserved for casual situations:

She certainly drives slow in that old Buick of hers.
He did wrong by her.
He spoke sharp, quick, and to the point.

Adverbs often function as intensifiers, conveying a greater or lesser emphasis to something. Intensifiers are said to have three different functions: they can emphasize, amplify, or downtone. Here are some examples:

Emphasizers:
- I really don't believe him.
- He literally wrecked his mother's car.
- She simply ignored me.
- They're going to be late, for sure.
Amplifiers:
- The teacher completely rejected her proposal.
- I absolutely refuse to attend any more faculty meetings.
- They heartily endorsed the new restaurant.
- I so wanted to go with them.
- We know this city well.
Downtoners:
- I kind of like this college.
- Joe sort of felt betrayed by his sister.
- His mother mildly disapproved his actions.
- We can improve on this to some extent.
- The boss almost quit after that.
- The school was all but ruined by the storm.

Adverbs (as well as adjectives) in their various degrees can be accompanied by premodifiers:

She runs very fast.
We're going to run out of material all the faster

This issue is addressed in the section on degrees in adjectives.

For this section on intensifiers, we are indebted to A Grammar of Contemporary English by Randolph Quirk, Sidney Greenbaum, Geoffrey Leech, and Jan Svartvik. Longman Group: London. 1978. pages 438 to 457. Examples our own.

Using Adverbs in a Numbered List

Within the normal flow of text, it's nearly always a bad idea to number items beyond three or four, at the most. Anything beyond that, you're better off with a vertical list that uses numbers (1, 2, 3, etc.). Also, in such a list, don't use adverbs (with an -ly ending); use instead the uninflected ordinal number (first, second, third, fourth, fifth, etc.). First (not firstly), it's unclear what the adverb is modifying. Second (not secondly), it's unnecessary. Third (not thirdly), after you get beyond "secondly," it starts to sound silly. Adverbs that number in this manner are treated as disjuncts (see below.)

Adverbs We Can Do Without

Review the section on Being Concise for some advice on adverbs that we can eliminate to the benefit of our prose: intensifiers such as very, extremely, and really that don't intensify anything and expletive constructions ("There are several books that address this issue.")

Kinds of Adverbs

Adverbs of Manner She moved slowly and spoke quietly. Adverbs of Place She has lived on the island all her life. She still lives there now. Adverbs of Frequency She takes the boat to the mainland every day. She often goes by herself. Adverbs of Time She tries to get back before dark. It's starting to get dark now. She finished her tea first. She left early. Adverbs of Purpose She drives her boat slowly to avoid hitting the rocks. She shops in several stores to get the best buys.

Positions of Adverbs

One of the hallmarks of adverbs is their ability to move around in a sentence. Adverbs of manner are particularly flexible in this regard.

Solemnly the minister addressed her congregation.
The minister solemnly addressed her congregation.
The minister addressed her congregation solemnly.

The following adverbs of frequency appear in various points in these sentences:

Before the main verb: I never get up before nine o'clock.
Between the auxiliary verb and the main verb: I have rarely written to my brother without a good reason.
Before the verb used to: I always used to see him at his summer home.

Indefinite adverbs of time can appear either before the verb or between the auxiliary and the main verb:

He finally showed up for batting practice.
She has recently retired.

Order of Adverbs

There is a basic order in which adverbs will appear when there is more than one. It is similar to The Royal Order of Adjectives, but it is even more flexible.

THE ROYAL ORDER OF ADVERBS
Verb	Manner	Place	Frequency	Time	Purpose
Beth swims	enthusiastically	in the pool	every morning	before dawn	to keep in shape.
Dad walks	impatiently	into town	every afternoon	before supper	to get a newspaper.
Tashonda naps		in her room	every morning	before lunch.
	In actual practice, of course, it would be highly unusual to have a string of adverbial modifiers beyond two or three (at the most). Because the placement of adverbs is so flexible, one or two of the modifiers would probably move to the beginning of the sentence: "Every afternoon before supper, Dad impatiently walks into town to get a newspaper." When that happens, the introductory adverbial modifiers are usually set off with a comma.

Additional Notes on Adverb Order

As a general principle, shorter adverbial phrases precede longer adverbial phrases, regardless of content. In the following sentence, an adverb of time precedes an adverb of frequency because it is shorter (and simpler):

Dad takes a brisk walk before breakfast every day of his life.

A second principle: among similar adverbial phrases of kind (manner, place, frequency, etc.), the more specific adverbial phrase comes first:

My grandmother was born in a sod house on the plains of northern Nebraska.
She promised to meet him for lunch next Tuesday.

Bringing an adverbial modifier to the beginning of the sentence can place special emphasis on that modifier. This is particularly useful with adverbs of manner:

Slowly, ever so carefully, Jesse filled the coffee cup up to the brim, even above the brim.
Occasionally, but only occasionally, one of these lemons will get by the inspectors.

Inappropriate Adverb Order

Review the section on Misplaced Modifiers for some additional ideas on placement. Modifiers can sometimes attach themselves to and thus modify words that they ought not to modify.

They reported that Giuseppe Balle, a European rock star, had died on the six o'clock news.

Clearly, it would be better to move the underlined modifier to a position immediately after "they reported" or even to the beginning of the sentence — so the poor man doesn't die on television.

Misplacement can also occur with very simple modifiers, such as only and barely:

She only grew to be four feet tall.

It would be better if "She grew to be only four feet tall."

Adjuncts, Disjuncts, and Conjuncts

Regardless of its position, an adverb is often neatly integrated into the flow of a sentence. When this is true, as it almost always is, the adverb is called an adjunct. (Notice the underlined adjuncts or adjunctive adverbs in the first two sentences of this paragraph.) When the adverb does not fit into the flow of the clause, it is called a disjunct or a conjunct and is often set off by a comma or set of commas. A disjunct frequently acts as a kind of evaluation of the rest of the sentence. Although it usually modifies the verb, we could say that it modifies the entire clause, too. Notice how "too" is a disjunct in the sentence immediately before this one; that same word can also serve as an adjunct adverbial modifier: It's too hot to play outside. Here are two more disjunctive adverbs:

Frankly, Martha, I don't give a hoot.
Fortunately, no one was hurt.

Conjuncts, on the other hand, serve a connector function within the flow of the text, signaling a transition between ideas.

If they start smoking those awful cigars, then I'm not staying.
We've told the landlord about this ceiling again and again, and yet he's done nothing to fix it.

At the extreme edge of this category, we have the purely conjunctive device known as the conjunctive adverb (often called the adverbial conjunction):

Jose has spent years preparing for this event; nevertheless, he's the most nervous person here.
I love this school; however, I don't think I can afford the tuition.

Authority for this section: A University Grammar of English by Randolph Quirk and Sidney Greenbaum. Longman Group: Essex, England. 1993. 126. Used with permission. Examples our own.

Some Special Cases

The adverbs enough and not enough usually take a postmodifier position:

Is that music loud enough?
These shoes are not big enough.
In a roomful of elderly people, you must remember to speak loudly enough.

(Notice, though, that when enough functions as an adjective, it can come before the noun:

Did she give us enough time?

The adverb enough is often followed by an infinitive:

She didn't run fast enough to win.

The adverb too comes before adjectives and other adverbs:

She ran too fast.
She works too quickly.

If too comes after the adverb it is probably a disjunct (meaning also) and is usually set off with a comma:

Yasmin works hard. She works quickly, too.

The adverb too is often followed by an infinitive:

She runs too slowly to enter this race.

Another common construction with the adverb too is too followed by a prepositional phrase — for + the object of the preposition — followed by an infinitive:

This milk is too hot for a baby to drink.

Relative Adverbs

Adjectival clauses are sometimes introduced by what are called the relative adverbs: where, when, and why. Although the entire clause is adjectival and will modify a noun, the relative word itself fulfills an adverbial function (modifying a verb within its own clause).

The relative adverb where will begin a clause that modifies a noun of place:

My entire family now worships in the church where my great grandfather used to be minister.

The relative pronoun "where" modifies the verb "used to be" (which makes it adverbial), but the entire clause ("where my great grandfather used to be minister") modifies the word "church."

A when clause will modify nouns of time:

My favorite month is always February, when we celebrate Valentine's Day and Presidents' Day.

And a why clause will modify the noun reason:

Do you know the reason why Isabel isn't in class today?

We sometimes leave out the relative adverb in such clauses, and many writers prefer "that" to "why" in a clause referring to "reason":

Do you know the reason ~~why~~ Isabel isn't in class today?
I always look forward to the day ~~when~~ we begin our summer vacation.
I know the reason that men like motorcycles.

Authority for this section: Understanding English Grammar by Martha Kolln. 4rth Edition. MacMillan Publishing Company: New York. 1994.

Viewpoint, Focus, and Negative Adverbs

A viewpoint adverb generally comes after a noun and is related to an adjective that precedes that noun:

A successful athletic team is often a good team scholastically.
Investing all our money in snowmobiles was probably not a sound idea financially.

You will sometimes hear a phrase like "scholastically speaking" or "financially speaking" in these circumstances, but the word "speaking" is seldom necessary.

A focus adverb indicates that what is being communicated is limited to the part that is focused; a focus adverb will tend either to limit the sense of the sentence ("He got an A just for attending the class.") or to act as an additive ("He got an A in addition to being published."

Although negative constructions like the words "not" and "never" are usually found embedded within a verb string — "He has never been much help to his mother." — they are technically not part of the verb; they are, indeed, adverbs. However, a so-called negative adverb creates a negative meaning in a sentence without the use of the usual no/not/neither/nor/never constructions:

He seldom visits.
She hardly eats anything since the accident.
After her long and tedious lectures, rarely was anyone awake.

Лекция 18

СИНТАКСИС СЛОВОСОЧЕТАНИЯ. СИНТАГМАТИЧЕСКИЕ ОБЪЕДИНЕНИЯ СЛОВ

SYNTAX OF THE PHRASE. SYNTAGMATIC CONNECTIONS OF WORDS

Словосочетание как полиноминативная языковая единица. Соотношение словосочетания и слова, словосочетания и предложения. Синтаксис словосочетания как "малый синтаксис" в соотношении с синтаксисом предложения как "большим синтаксисом". Проблема определения словосочетания. Знаменательные, формативные и служеб-ные словосочетания. Свободные и устойчивые словосочетания. Эквипотентные и доминационные (подчинительные) связи слов. Последовательная (непосредственно-сочинительная) и присоедини-тельная эквипотентная связь слов. Синдетическое и асиндетическое объединение слов. Последовательная (непосредственно подчинитель-ная) и присоединительная доминация. Ядро и адъюнкт подчинительного словосочетания. Реализация доминационных связей с помощью изменения формы слова (категориальное согласование, управление), использования связующих слова (предложное управление) или порядка слов (примыкание, замыкание). Проблема взаимодоминационных связей предикативных объединений слов (подлежащего и сказуемого). Классификация подчинительных словосочетаний по частиречному, функциональному и позиционному критериям.

The phrase as a polynominatlve lingual unit. The correlation of the phrase and the word, of the phrase and the sentence. Syntax of the phrase as 'minor syntax' in relation to syntax of the sentence as 'major syntax'. The problem of definition of the phrase. Notional, formative and functional phrases. Free and set phrases. Equipotent and dominational connections between the phrase constituents. Equipotent consecutive (coordinative proper) and equipotent cumulative

connections. Syndetic and asyndetic connections. Dominational consecutive (subordinative proper) and dominational cumulative connections. The kernel and the adjunct of a subodinative phrase. Domination realization by different forms of the word (categorial agreement, government), connective words (prepositional government), or word order (adjoining, enclosure). The problem of bilateral dominational connections in predicative combinations of words (of a subject and a predicate). The classification of phrases according to part-of-speech, functional and positional criteria.

Объектом изучения в синтаксисе является коммуникативная языковая единица, предложение. Словосочетание - это синтаксическая единица, выступающая в качестве составной части предложения. В качестве самостоятельной уровнеобразующей языковой единицы (см. Раздел 1) словосочетание характеризуется общими и отличительными чертами в сопоставлении с единицами нижележащего уровня, словами, и с единицами вышележащего уровня, предложениями. Как и слово, словосочетание является номинативной единицей, однако оно представляет собой комплексную номинацию референта, его полиноминацию, состоящую из нескольких (как минимум двух) номинативных компонентов, описывающих референт как сложное явление, ср.: a girl - a beautiful girl; a decision - his unexpected decision; и т.д. Кроме того, обычное свободное словосочетание, в отличие от слова, не воспроизводится в речи как готовая единица; оно, как и предложение, образуется в речи по определенной грамматической модели. Что касается устойчивых словосочетаний, идиом, они по типу номинации близки к слову; они представляют собой готовые языковые единицы, регистрируются как таковые в словарях и изучаются преимущественно в лексикологии.

Основное отличие словосочетания от предложения заключается в следующем: словосочетание не может выражать полную предикацию, даже тогда, когда оно обозначает ситуацию; это может быть со всей очевидностью продемонстрировано во взаимных трансформациях предложений и словосочетаний, например, при так называемой «фразиализации» или «номинализации» предложения, ср.: They considered the problem. - their consideration of the problem; for them to consider the problem; their considering of the problem. Итак, словосочетание входит в речь только как составная часть предложения, «денотема» (см. Раздел 1), если быть более точным, как «полиденотема» в противопоставлении со словом, которое входит в предложение как «моноденотема». Это дает основание рассматривать грамматическое учение о словосочетании как отдельный раздел синтаксиса, называемый иногда «малым синтаксисом», в отличие от

«большого синтаксиса», изучающего предложение и его текстовые объединения.

The main object of study in syntax is the communicative unit of the language, the sentence. The phrase is the syntactic unit used as a notional part of a sentence. As a level-forming unit (see Unit 1), it is characterized by some common and some differential features with the unit of the lower level, the word, and the unit of the upper level, the sentence. Like the word, the phrase is a nominative unit, but it provides a complex nomination of the referent, a polynomination consisting of several (at least two) nominative components, presenting the referent as a complicated phenomenon, cf: a girl - a beautiful girl; a decision - his unexpected decision; etc. Moreover, the regular free phrase does not enter speech as a ready-made unit like the word; it is freely formed in speech, like the sentence according to a certain grammatical pattern. As for the fixed word-combinations, idioms, they are closer to the word in the type of nomination: they are ready-made units fixed in dictionaries and studied mainly by lexicology.

The basic difference between the phrase and the sentence is as follows: the phrase cannot express full predication, even if it denotes a situation; this becomes obvious in their mutual transformations, for example, in the so-called phrasalization, or nominalization of the sentence, cf.: They considered the problem. - their consideration of the problem; for them to consider the problem; their considering of the problem. Thus, the phrase enters speech only as a constituent of a sentence, as "a denoteme" (see Unit 1), to be more exact, as "a polydenoteme" as contrasted with the word, which enters a sentence as "a monodenoteme". The grammatical description of the phrase is seen as a separate part of syntax, the syntax of the phrase; it is sometimes called "minor syntax", in distinction to "major syntax", studying the sentence and its textual connections.

Определение словосочетания является довольно спорным вопросом. В русистике традиционно преобладает узкий подход к словосочетанию, сформулированный В. В. Виноградовым: словосочетанием считается только объединение двух знаменательных слов, одно из которых подчиняет себе второе. Гораздо более широкая трактовка была предложена в свое время Леонардом Блумфилдом, и сегодня ее разделяют многие лингвисты. Один из ведущих специалистов в этой области, В. В. Бурлакова, определяет словосочетание как любую синтаксически организованную группу синтагматически объединенных слов, включая объединения служебных и знаменательных слов, предикативные и сочинительные сочетания слов. Данные два подхода могут быть критически пересмотрены с учетом изложенного выше описания словосочетания (фраземы) как особой единицы языка.

Определение словосочетания как полиноминативной языковой единицы позволяет раскрыть статус знаменательных словосочетаний, т.е. семантически самостоятельных («автосемантичных») сочетаний знаменательных, полнозначных слов, как базовую часть уровня фразем. Помимо полнозначных словосочетаний (словосочетаний в основном значении этого термина), можно выделить еще два структурных типа синтагматических объединений слов, которые могут быть обозначены как словосочетания только по форме: формативные словосочетания и служебные словосочетания. Формативное словосочетание - это сочетание знаменательного слова со служебным, которое семантически зависимо от контекста («синсемантично») и функционирует в предложении подобно отдельным знаменательным словам в различных грамматических формах, например: of Peter (= Peter's); in a moment, without doubt и т.п. Служебные словосочетания - это сочетания служебных слов, которые функционируют подобно обычным однословным служебным словам, например: apart from, as soon as, with reference to, must be able и др.

The definition of the phrase is rather a controversial issue. In Russian linguistics, the narrow approach, which was put forward by V. V. Vinogradov, traditionally prevails: only a combination of two notional words, one of which dominates the other, is considered a word-combination. A much broader approach was proposed by Leonard Bloomfield and it is shared by many modern linguists. One of the leading specialists in this field, V. V. Burlakova, defines a word-combination as any syntactically organized group of syntagmatically connected words; this includes combinations of functional and notional words, and predicative and coordinative combinations of words. Critical revision of these two approaches is possible on the basis of the above given description of the phrase (the phraseme) as a separate lingual unit.

Defining the phrase as a polynominative lingual unit helps reveal the status of notional phrases, semantically independent ("autosemantic") combinations of notional words, as the basic type of phrasemes. Besides notional phrases (phrases proper), two other structural types of syntagmatic groupings of words can be distinguished, which can be defined as phrases or word-combinations only in form: formative phrases and functional phrases. The formative phrase is a combination of a notional word with a functional word, which is contextually dependent ("synsemantic") and functionally similar to separate notional words used in various grammatical forms, e.g.: of Peter (= Peter's); in a moment, without doubt, etc. Functional phrases are combinations of functional words similar to regular functional words, e.g.: apart from, as soon as, with reference to, must be able, etc.

Знаменательные словосочетания подразделяются на различные типы, которые раскрывают грамматические и семантические особенности компонентов словосочетания и словосочетания в целом.

На основе соотносительного ранга компонентов объединения знаменательных слов подразделяются на доминационные (гипотактические) и эквипотентные (паратактические). Компоненты эквипотентных словосочетаний равны по синтаксическому рангу, ни один из них не является модификатором по отношению к другому, например: poor but honest; mad, bad and dangerous; his, not Mary's и др. Как видно из приведенных примеров, синтаксические связи между компонентами эквипотентных словосочетаний могут осуществляться с помощью специальных сочинительных союзов или безо всяких связующих слов; в первом случае связи называются «синдетическими», во втором -«асиндетическими». В приведенных примерах компоненты словосочетаний образуют логически последовательные объединения, определяемые как «сочинительные». Входя в состав предложения, члены сочинительных словосочетаний формируют цепочки однородных членов предложения, например: Не is mad, bad and dangerous (mad, bad and dangerous -однородные предикативы). Помимо сочинительных словосочетаний существуют объединения слов, в которых последующий компонент, хотя и присоединяется к предшествующему компоненту с помощью сочинительного союза, не равнозначен ему по характеру номинации, например: came, but late; agreed, or nearly so и др. Такие формально эквипотентные словосочетания называются «присоединительные (кумулятивные)». Присоединение на письме сигнализируется нефинальными знаками препинания, запятой или тире. Термин «присоединение» обычно используется для обозначения связей между предложениями; поэтому присоединительные связи между словами можно определить как «внутреннее присоединение (внутреннюю кумуляцию)» в отличие от «внешнего присоединения» отдельных предложений. Notional phrases are subdivided into different types, which reveal various grammatical and semantic properties of the phrase constituents and the phrase in general.

On the basis of constituent rank, the groupings of notional words are subdivided into dominational (hypotactic) and equipotent (paratactic). The constituents of equipotent phrases are of equal syntactic rank; none of them modifies another, e.g.: poor but honest; mad, bad and dangerous; his, not Mary's; etc. As these examples show, the syntactic connections in equipotent phrases can be realized with the help of a coordinative conjunction or without any connecting element involved; the former are called "syndetic" connections, the latter "asyndetic" connections. In the above examples, the phrase constituents form logically consecutive connections, which are defined as "coordinative". Entering the

structure of the sentence, constituents of coordinative phrases function as homogeneous notional parts of the sentence, e.g.: He is mad, bad and dangerous (mad, bad and dangerous are homogeneous predicatives). Besides coordinative phrases, there are phrases in which the sequential element, although connected with the foregoing element by a coordinative conjunction, is unequal to it in the character of nomination, e.g.: came, but late; agreed, or nearly so; etc. Such formally equipotent phrases of a non-consecutive type are defined as "cumulative". Cumulative connection in writing is usually signaled by some intermediary punctuation mark, such as a comma or a hyphen. The term "cumulation" is commonly used to denote connections between separate sentences; so, cumulative connections between words can be defined as "inner cumulation" in distinction to the "outer cumulation" of sentences.

В доминационных (гипотактических) словосочетаниях одно слово в широком смысле определяет, или модифицирует другое. Главный компонент, который синтаксически подчиняет себе другой, называется ядром, ядерным словом или стержневым элементом словосочетания; подчиненный компонент, выступающий как определитель по отношению к ядру словосочетания, называется адъюнктом или расширением. Например, в словосочетании a beautiful girl слово a girl является ядром, а слово beautiful -адъюнктом. Доминационные связи, как и эквипотентные связи, могут быть либо последовательными, либо присоединительными, ср.: definitely out of point (последовательное подчинение) - out of point, definitely (подчинение присоединительного типа). Логически последовательные доминационные связи называются «подчинительными».

Доминационная связь достигается за счет формы слова (категориальное согласование, управление), использования связующих слова (предлоги, т.е. предложное управление) или порядка слов (примыкание, замыкание). Согласование имеет место тогда, когда подчиненное слово принимают форму, сходную с формой ядерного слова, например: this boy, these boys; the child plays, the children play; в английском языке слова согласуются только по категории числа в некоторых контекстах. Управление имеет место тогда, когда некая форма адъюнкта требуется при присоединении к ядерному слову, но не совпадает с ним по форме, например: to see him; to talk to him. Примыкание не предполагает никакого формального признака связи, слова объединяются просто на основе контакта друг с другом, например: to go home. Замыкание имеет место тогда, когда адъюнкт располагается между двумя частями аналитической формы ядерного слова, например: to thoroughly think over, the then government, an interesting question и др. Доминация, осуществляемая за счет изменения формы слова, т.е. согласование и управление без предлога, важны для флективных языков; в

английском языке они представляют собой остатки старой флективной системы, как в показанных случаях. В английском языке преобладают словосочетания, в которых связь слов осуществляется с помощью предлогов или порядка слов.

In dominational phrases, one word modifies another. The principal constituent, which dominates the other constituent syntactically, is called the kernel, the keyword, or the head word; the subordinate (dominated) constituent, which modifies the kernel, is called the adjunct, the adjunct-word, or the expansion. For example, in the word-combination a beautiful girl the word 'a girl' is the kernel, and 'beautiful' is the adjunct. Dominational connection, like equipotent connection, can be both consecutive and cumulative, cf: definitely off the point (consecutive domination) - off the point, definitely (cumulative domination). Logically consecutive dominational connections are defined as "subordinative".

Dominational connection is achieved by different forms of the word (categorial agreement, government), connective words (prepositions, i.e. prepositional government), or word order (adjoining, enclosure). Agreement takes place when the subordinate word assumes a form similar to the form of the kernel, e.g.: this boy, these boys; the child plays, the children play; in English, words agree only in number in some grammatical contexts. Government takes place when a certain form of adjunct is required by its head-word, but it does not coincide with the form of the head word, e.g.: to see him; to talk to him. Adjoining involves no special formal mark of dependence between constituents; words are combined by sheer contact, e.g.: to go home. Enclosure takes place in phrases in which the subordinate word is placed between two parts of an analytical head-word form, e.g.: to thoroughly think over, the then government, an interesting question, etc. Domination achieved by the form of the word, through agreement or government, is important for inflectional languages; in English, it is the remnant of the old inflectional system as in the cases shown above. Phrases in which the connections are expressed by prepositions only or word-order are predominant in English.

Два основных типа доминационных связей - это двусторонняя, или взаимная доминация и односторонняя доминация. В большинстве приведенных выше примеров доминационные связи являются односторонними: адъюнкт подчинен ядру, например: this boy, to talk to him, a beautiful girl и т.д. Двусторонняя доминация реализуется в предикативных объединениях слов, полнопредикативных или полу-предикативных, например: the pupil understands, the pupil's understanding, the pupil understanding, for the pupil to understand. В предикативных объединениях слов подлежащее подчиняет сказуемое, обозначая лицо предикации; формально подчинение проявляется в том, что подлежащее определяет лицо и число глагола-сказуемого. Сказуемое подчиняет подлежащее, называя событие предикации, некое

действие, состояние или признак; в трансформациях номинализации отглагольный трансформ занимает позицию ядра в словосочетании, а подлежащее становится адъюнктом, ср.: he decided a his decision.

Некоторые лингвисты не принимают понятие «предикативное словосочетание», считая, что предикация может выражаться только предложением. Однако, нельзя не согласиться, что объединения слов, которые образуют предикативную линию в предложении, предикативные синтагмы, должны быть выделены в отдельный тип, поскольку взаимная доминация представляет особый тип синтагматических связей между словами; чтобы избежать разногласий, Л. Ельслев предложил назвать связи между членами словосочетаний с взаимной доминацией «взаимозависимостью».

Таким образом, существуют четыре основных типа синтагматических связей между словами в их синтаксических объединениях: сочинение (последовательно эквипотентные связи), подчинение (последовательно доминационные связи), предикация, или взаимозависимость (взаимодоминационные связи) и присоединение (внутреннее присоединение, внутренняя кумуляция).

The two basic types of dominational connections are bilateral (reciprocal, two-way) domination and monolateral (one-way) domination. The connections in most of the examples above are monolateral dominational; the kernel dominates the adjunct: this boy, to talk to him, a beautiful girl, etc. Bilateral domination is realized in predicative connections of words, which may be either fully predicative, or semi-predicative, e.g.: the pupil understands, the pupil's understanding, the pupil understanding, for the pupil to understand. In predicative groupings of words the subject dominates the predicate, determining the person of predication; formally, domination is manifested by the reflection of the person and number properties of the subject in the form of the verb performing the function of a predicate. The predicate dominates the subject, determining the event of predication, some action, state, or quality; in the transformation of nominalization the transform of the predicate occupies the position of the head-word, while the subject becomes its adjunct, cf: he decided a his decision.

Some linguists challenge the idea of "a predicative word-combination", arguing that predication can be expressed only by the sentence. Still, there is no arguing with the fact, that the groupings of words which constitute the predicative line in the sentence, predicative sintagmas, are to be distinguished as a specific type, because bilateral domination is a specific type of syntagmatic connections of words; to avoid disagreements, L. Hjelmslev suggests the term "interdependence" to denote the connections between the constituents of bilateral dominational phrases.

Thus, there are four basic types of syntagmatic connections of words distinguished in their syntactic groupings: coordination (consecutive equipotent connection), subordination (consecutive dominational connection), predication, or interdependence (bilateral dominational connection) and cumulation (inner cumulation).

Помимо описанной классификации объединений слов на основе базовых типов синтагматических отношений, возможны дальнейшие подразделения или обобщения, а также другие подходы в описании словосочетания. Традиционная классификация словосочетаний основывается на частиречной принадлежности членов словосочетания (на основе частиречной характеристики ядерного слова в подчинительных словосочетаниях); так, выделяют именные словосочетания (NP), например: a beautiful girl; men, women and children; глагольные словосочетания (VP), например: went home; адъективные словосочетания (АР), например: quite unexpected; адвербиальные словосочетания (DP), например: quite unexpectedly. Подчинительные словосочетания на основе отношений между ядром и адъюнктом подразделяются на словосочетания с объектными отношениями (прямыми и косвенными) и с определительными отношениями (атрибутивными и адвербиальными), например: to see a child (прямые объектные); put on the table (косвенные объектные); a beautiful girl (атрибутивные); came soon (адвербиальные). На основе позиционных характеристик адъюнкта по отношению к ядру выделяют регрессивные словосочетания, в которых адъюнкт предшествует ядру, например: а beautiful girl; и прогрессивные словосочетания, в которых адъюнкт следует за ядром, например: came home.

Besides the classification of word groupings on the basis of the major syntagmatic connections outlined above, there are further subdivisions and generalizations, and other approaches possible in the description of the phrase. The traditional classification of phrases is based on the part-of-speech characteristics of their constituents (on the part of speech of the kernel in dominational phrases); there are noun phrases (NP), e.g.: a beautiful girl; men, women and children; verbal phrases (VP), e.g.: went home; came and went; adjective phrases (AP), e.g.: quite unexpected; nice and quiet; adverbial phrases (DP), e.g.: quite unexpectedly. On the base of kernel-adjunct relations, subordinative phrases can be divided into those with objective connections (direct objective and indirect objective) and qualifying connections (attributive and adverbial), e.g.: to see a child (direct objective); put on the table (indirect objective); a beautiful girl (attributive); came soon (adverbial). On the base of the position of the adjunct in relation to the kernel, subordinative phrases are characterized as regressive or progressive: in regressive phrases, the adjunct precedes the kernel, e.g.: a beautiful girl; in progressive phrases, the adjunct follows the kernel, e.g.: came home.

Словосочетание, как любые другие языковые единицы, состоящие из нескольких компонентов, можно проанализировать с помощью линейного анализа или с помощью анализа по непосредственным составляющим, который показывает уровни зависимостей между компонентами. Например:

that extremely beautiful girl

The phrase, like any other lingual unit consisting of several components, can be analyzed in a linear way or in a hierarchical way, in an immediate constituents analysis, which shows the levels of dependences between its components.

E.g.: that extremely beautiful girl

that extremely beautiful girl

Key terms: phrase, word-combination, syntagmatic groupings of words, polynominative lingual unit, polydenoteme (monodenoteme), 'minor syntax', 'major syntax', notional phrase, formative phrase, functional phrase, equipotent (paratactic) and dominational (hypotactic) connections, consecutive equipotent (coordinative proper) and cumulative equipotent connections, dominational consecutive (subordinative proper) and dominational cumulative connections, kernel (kernel element, key word, head word), adjunct (adjunct word, expansion), monolateral (one-way) domination, bilateral (reciprocal, two-way) domination, agreement, government (prepositional and non-prepositional), adjoining, enclosure, interdependence, regressive and progressive phrases.

E.g.: that extremely beautiful girl.

(дополнит. информацию см. А.И. Смирнитский Синтаксис английского языка. глава 3)

Лекция 19

WORD ORDER

ПОРЯДОК СЛОВ

I. В английском языке строгий порядок слов, так как в нем почти отсутствуют окончания, служащие для связи слов в предложении.

I	II	III	IV
подлежащее	сказуемое	дополнение	обстоятельство

прямое	косвенное	предложное
кого?	кому?	о ком?
что?	чему?	о чём?

I II III IV

E.g.: My daughter teaches English to your daughter at school.

Здесь одно и то же слово «daughter» выполняет разную функцию, так как стоит в разных позициях в предложении: одно из них подлежащее (I), другое — предложное дополнение (III). Строгое место членов предложения в английском языке предопределяет роль слова в предложении и, тем самым, перевод. Связь между словами осуществляют предлоги.

II. Порядок слов в английском языке отличается от порядка слов в русском языке. В английском языке имеется ряд грамматических средств, которые компенсируют нарушения порядка слов.

Русский язык	Английский язык
— Посмотри! Идет!	— Look! Не (she, it) is coming
Отсутствует подлежащее во втором предложении.	Личные местоимения компенсируют отсутствие подлежащего
— Я в комнате	— I am in the room
Отсутствует сказуемое	Глагол to be (am, are, is, was, were) компенсирует отсутствие сказуемого
— Холодно	— It is cold
Нет ни подлежащего, ни сказуемого	Местоимение компенсирует отсутствие подлежащего, глагол to be компенсирует отсутствие сказуемого
— На столе книга	— There is a book on the table
Предложение начинается с обстоятельства места (где?).	Используется конструкция there is/are.

Английское предложение переводится на русский язык чаще с обстоятельства, а потом следует сказуемое, и только после этого переводится подлежащее (т.е. мы переводим предложение на русский язык согласно нормам, существующим в нём).

III. Тем не менее, не всегда удается восстановить порядок слов; иногда в этом нет необходимости, а иногда, напротив, надо выделить то или иное слово в предложении, используя инверсию. В некоторых случаях инверсия существует независимо от желаний говорящего, а в силу определенных грамматических норм. Инверсия используется в следующих случаях.

1. Когда предложение начинается со слова «there».

E.g.; There is no basis for this complaint.

There are few excuses that teachers will accept.

Note: Однако, если существительное после there is/are меняется на местоимение, порядок слов не нарушается.

E.g.: There are birds ... . There they are.

2. Когда предложение начинается с предложной фразы, и в функции сказуемого употребляется непереходный глагол, указывающий на местонахождение действующего лица или предмета (т.е. подлежащего).

E.g.: On the corner stood a police officer.

In the box were several old photographs.

3. В условных предложениях (Subjunctive II) с союзами «if» и «unless» союзы могут опускаться; в этом случае предложения соединяются без союзов, инверсия компенсирует утрату союзов.

E.g.: Were he to ask her, she would surely help him.

Should he ask her, she would surely help him.

Had he known, he would have come.

4. В предложениях, которые начинаются с одного из слов или словосочетаний с отрицательным значением типа: never, hardly, seldom rarely, barely, scarcely, not only, at no time, nowhere, not only ... also, under no circumstances, not often, on no account, no sooner ... than, hardly ... when, so incredible, not until... that.

E.g.: Not only did they go but they also stayed until the end.

Never has the world faced so many problems.

At no time were the passengers in any danger.

Note: Инверсия отсутствует после выражений «now ... that» (теперь когда) и «It was not until... that» (только после того, как).

5. В предложениях, начинающихся со слова «only», после которого следует выражение или целое предложение со значением времен (обстоятельство времени, придаточное предложение времени).

E.g.: Only once was John late for class.

Only after her mother died, did she know loneliness.

6. В предложениях, которые начинаются со слов-морфем «down, in, up, out» в функции обстоятельств, сказуемое стоит перед подлежащим, если оно выражено существительным.

E.g.: Down came, the rain

In walked the doctor with his bag in hand.

7. Если предложение начинается со слов «few, little, such, so», и после них не следуют существительные, как в следующих примерах: (few people, little milk, a little girl, such a nice day, so few possessions и т.д.).

E.g.: Little did she know that she had won the grand prize.

So great was her love for her children that she sacrificed everything for them.

8. В предложениях с пассивной формой сказуемого (was held, were transformed), когда пассивная форма расчленяется, и основной глагол в форме Participle II выносится на первое место в предложении.

E.g.: Held as hostages were several reporters.

Discovered at the bottom of the well were two small children.

Note: в косвенной речи сохраняется прямой порядок слов.

E.g.: The man asked where the bus station was.

IV. Как правило, прилагательные стоят перед существительными, которые они определяют, если только они не в функции предикатива (части сказуемого — the day is nice), и не в вопросительном предложении (is the day nice?). Однако, прилагательные всегда идут после слов, которые заканчиваются на -one, -body, -thing.

E.g.: Something terrible must have happened to him.

V. Прилагательное и наречие «enough» меняет свое место в предложении в зависимости от того, к какой части речи онb относятся.

adjective

adverb + enough

E.g.: Are those chips crisp enough?

He speaks French well enough.

Enough + noun E.g.: enough sugar, enough books, enough grown up people.

VI. Место наречий в предложении.

1. Обычно наречие стоит перед простым сказуемым.

Eg: Не usually works 5 days a week.

We seldom have a fight.

2. Если сказуемое выражено сложной формой (из 2-х и более компонентов have been done или must + have been done), то наречие ставится после первого вспомогательного глагола (has just been done), a при наличии модального глагола — после него (may still be working).

3. Also, too, either, still, yet, other, another, more, quite, at all.

Также, тоже, еще, другой, все еще, совсем.

Утвердительные предложения:

too:

I II III IV too.

also:

I also II III IV.

still:

I still II III IV.

else:

some where

any thing else

no body

quite + прилагательное/наречие;

more + прилагательное/существительное;

another — один, неизвестный (прилагательное);

other — много неизвестных (прилагательное);

others — много неизвестных (существительное);

остальные из перечисленных;

t he others

как существит. мн. ч-. (извести.);

один, известный;

t he other

второй (из 2-х) или последний из ...

Вопросительные предложения:

else; more:

□ else II III IV ? / □ else II I III IV? где

more □ more О I II III IV ? □ — вопросительное слово;

О — вспомогательный глагол;

E.g.: When else did you see him?

Where else were you?

Why else have you done it?

How more time do you need?

else; more; still:

II I still III IV?

О I still II III IV?

yet (еще не сделал ? = уже сделал?):

О I II III IV yet? E.g.: Have you done it yet?

too:

О I II III IV too ?

II I III IV too ?

also:

О I also II III IV ? II I also III IV ?

Отрицательные предложения:

yet

at all

either

I II not III IV yet (at all).

T hey do not neither

I am

VII. Порядок слов в кратком ответе.

И я тоже

+ да - нет

So II I

Neither II I

Nor II I

1. You have good grades for the test.

So have I.

1. I have no good grades for the test.

Neither have I.

Nor have I.

2. They can pass it.

So can I.

2. He can’t pass the test.

Neither can I.

Nor can I.

3. I am important.

So am I.

3. She is not important. Neither is he.

Nor is she.

So O I

Neither O I

Nor O I

1. I speak two languages.

1. I don’t speak two languages.

Neither do I.

Nor do I.

2. He likes travelling.

So does she.

2. He doesn’t like travelling.

Neither does she.

Nor does she.

VIII. Порядок слов в вопросительных предложениях.

1. General questions (общие вопросы): Answers (ответы):

а ) II I III IV ? Yes I II

can, may, must.:. No, I II +not

to be (am, are, is)...

to have (has, had)

E.g.: Can he arrive before dark? Yes, he can.

Was the dress washable No, it was not.

Have you a magazine to read? Yes, I have.

b ) О I II III IV ? Yes, I О

do No, he О + not.

does

did

shall, will и т.д.

E.g.: Does he brush his teeth regularly? Yes, he does.

Did he attend the classes yesterday? No, he didn't.

2. Special questions (специальные вопросы):

— к второстепенным членам предложения

Ответ (полное предложение)

a ) II III IV ? I II III IV I II III IV

when are, is, was...

where can, may, must...

why have, has, had...

whose

E.g.:

Where are the students?	They are at home.
Why was he there?	... because he wanted...
When can they come?	They can come any time.
Whose book have you got?	I've got his book.

Ответ (полное предложение)

b ) ОIII III IV ? I II III IV

when do ... read

why did... write

where does... go

whose shall, will

E.g.:Where do you spend your holidays?	I spend them abroad.
Why did you call me?	I wanted to see you.

— к главным членам предложения, т.е. к подлежащему

Ответ (краткий)

a ) II III IV ? I II

b ) I II III IV ? I О

( I — вопросительное слово совпадает с подлежащим).

Who is there? I II He is.

What was here before? I II The pen is/was

Who learns all the rules? I do. He does.

E.g.: Who wants to help me? I do. He does.

What effected you so? The strife did.

3. Alternative questions (альтернативные вопросы):

- к второстепенным членам предложения

1-я часть — 2-я часть — Ответ —

общий вопрос однородные полное

члены предложения предложение

I I I III IV IV I II III IV

О I II III III, IV

Союз «оr» разделяет однородные члены предложения.

E.g.: Have you two brothers or sisters? I have two brothers.

Have you them in Moscow or in Leningrad? I have them in Leningrad.

Do you study linguistics or history? I study linguistics.

- к подлежащему

1-я часть- 2-я часть - Ответ —

общий вопрос снова общий вопрос, краткий

только его начало,

но к другому

подлежащему

а ) II I III IV II I I II

О I II III IV О I I О

E .g.: Has he photographs or has she? She has.

Does she feel loneliness do or you? I do.

Are you facing problems or is he? I am. He is.

Were the passengers in danger or was he? He was.

The passengers were.

Формы глагола в ответе сочетаются с подлежащим в: — лице,

— числе,

— времени.

4. Disjunctive questions (разделительные вопросы):

- к утвердительным повествовательным предложениям

1-я часть 2-я часть —

повествовательное общий вопрос к 1-й части

предложение (только его начало), но с отрицанием.

+ а) I II III IV , - II not I ?

+ b) I II III IV , - О not I ?

E.g.: She will surely help him, won't she?

This girl reads fast enough, doesn't she?

— к отрицательным повествовательным предложениям

- a) I II not Ш IV , + II I ? интонация + II I?

- b) I О not II III IV , + О I ? может + О I ?

I О n't II III IV , + О I ? падать + О I ?

— восходящая интонация показывает, что говорящий действительно спрашивает о чём-то.

— нисходящая интонация показывает, что говорящий не спрашивает, а практически подтверждает что-то.

E .g.: You don't need my help, do you?

You can't do this job, can you?

Лекция 20

Синтаксис (Syntax)

В английском языке, также как и в русском языке, речь состоит из слов, образующих словосочетания и предложения, которые в свою очередь могут быть простыми и сложными (см. также предложения с прямой и косвенной речью).В предложении различаются главные и второстепенные члены предложения. К главным членам предложения относятся подлежащее (the Subject) и сказуемое (the Predicate). К второстепенным членам предложения относятся дополнение (the Object), определение (the Attribute) и обстоятельства (the Adverbial Modifiers). В состав предложения могут входить слова и словосочетания, которые сами не являются ни главными, ни второстепенными членами предложения и синтаксически не связаны с каким-либо членом предложения. Сюда относятся обращения, вводные слова и словосочетания.

Сложные предложения

Сложносочинённоё предложение (The Compound Sentence)

Простые предложения, входящие в состав сложносочиненного предложения, соединяются сочинительными союзами: and и, a; as well as так же как и; neither .. .nor ни ... ни; bat но; not only ... but also не только ... но также и и т. д. Между предложениями, соединенными сочинительным союзами, обычно ставится запятая. Запятая может быт опущена перед союзом and и or, если предложения, которые они вводят, короткие. Сложносочиненное предложение может состоять из двух или более простых предложений, которые не соединяются союзами. При бессоюзном соединении предложенния отделяются друг от друга точкой с запятой или запятой, а при чтении—понижением голоса в конце каждого предложения:

Придаточное предложение (the Subordinate Clause) присоединяется к главному предложению (the Principal Clause) посредством подчинительных союзов: that что, if если, after после того как, because потому что и т.. д. или союзных слов: who кто, whose чей, when когда, where где, куда и т. д. Придаточное предложение может присоединяться к главному без союза: Придаточные предложения, зависимые от главного предложения, могут сами иметь придаточные зависимые от них предложения:Сложные предложения могут состоять из трех и более предложений, соединениях путем сочинения и подчинения:

Типы придаточных предложений.

Придаточные предложения подлежащие (Subject Clauses) Придаточные предложения подлежащие от на вопросы who? кто или what? что? и присоединяются к главному предложению союзами: that что, whether, if соответствующими в русском языке частице ли в союза, и союзными словами: who (whom) кто (кого); чей; what что, какой; which который; when когда; where где, куда; how как, why почему. Придаточные предложения предикативные члены (Predicative Clauses) Придаточные предложения предикативные члены присоединяются к главному предложению теми же союзами и союзными словами, что и придаточные предложения подлежащие. Придаточные предложения предикативные члены обычно присоединяются к подлежащему посредством глаголов-связок to be, to get, to become, to grow и др.

Придаточные дополнительные предложения (Object Clauses)

Придаточные дополнительные предложения отвечают на вопросы whom? кого? или what? что? без предлогов или с предлогами. Придаточные дополнительные предложения присоединяются к главному предложению теми же союзами и союзными словами, что и придаточные предложения подлежащие. С союзными словами могут употребляться различные предлоги. Придаточные дополнительные предложения в английском языке не отделяются запятой от главного-предложения.Придаточные дополнительные предложения могут присоединяться к главному и без союза.

Придаточные определительные предложения (Attributive Clauses)

Придаточные определительные предложения отвечают на вопросы which? what? какой? и присоединяются к главному предложению бессоюзным способом или при помощи союзных слов—относительных местоимений и наречий: who который; whom которого; whose чей, которого; which, that который; when когда; where где, куда; why почему. Относительные местоимения whom, whose и which, вводящие придаточное определительное предложение, могут употребляться с предлогами. Придаточное определительное предложение относится к какому-либо члену главного предложения, выраженному именем существительным или местоимением (в основном неопределенным somebody, anything), а также словами-заместителями: that, those, one. Придаточное определительное предложение занимает место после того слова, которое оно определяет в главном предложении. Придаточные определительные предложения делятся на два типа: описательные определительные предложения (Descriptive Clauses) и ограничительные определительные предложения (Limiting Clauses). Описательные определительные предложення могут быть выделены в отдельное предложение или вовсе опущены без ущерба для смысла главного предложения. Такое определительное предложение обычно отделяется от главного запятой: В придаточных обстоятельственных предложениях времени, начинающихся союзами when, whenever, till, until, as soon as, as, after, before, directly, by the time, as long as, while глагол в форме будущего времени не употребляется. Для выражения значения будущего времени в этих придаточных предложениях употребляются формы Present Indefinite (вместо Future Indefinite), Present Perfect (вместо Future Perfect), Present Continuous (вместо Future Continuous) и прошедшие времена (вместо Future in the Past): В придаточных обстоятельственных предложениях времени, начинающихся союзами after после того как и when когда, глагол-сказуемое употребляется в Past Perfect, если требуется подчеркнуть, что действие, выраженное глаголом в придаточном предложении, произошло в прошлом раньше действия, выраженного глаголом в главном предложении:Если выражается простая последовательность действий, происходящих одно за другим, то как в придаточном пред- -ложении, так и в главном употребляется Past Indefinite: В придаточном обстоятельственном предложении времени, начинающемся союзом before прежде чем, до того как, глагол-сказуемое употребляется в Past Indefinite, а в главном предложении глагол-сказуемое употребляется в Past Perfect, если требуется подчеркнуть, что действие, выраженное глаголом главного предложения, предшествовало действию, выраженному глаголом врида-точного предложения: Если выражается простая последовательность действий, происходящих одно за другим, то в главном предложении, так же как и в придаточном предложении, употребляется Past Indefinite:

Обстоятельственные предложения образа действия и сравнения (Adverbial clauses of Manner and Comparison)

Обстоятельственные предложения образа действия отвечают на вопрос how? как? каким образом? и присоединяются к главному предложению союзами: as как; as if, as though как будто, как если бы. При двойных союзах as ... as и not so ... as первая часть союза входит в состав главного предложения, а вторая часть—в состав придаточного предложения. Исключением из этого общего для всех двойных союзов правила является союз the . .. the первое the входит в состав придаточного предложения, а второе the—в состав главного предложения.

Обстоятельственные предложения причины (Adverbial Clauses of Cause)

Обстоятельственные предложения причины отвечают на вопрос why? почему? и присоединяются к главному предложению союзами: because потому что; since поскольку, так как; as так как.

Обстоятельственные предложения цели (Adverbial Clauses of Purpose)

Обстоятельственные предложения цели отвечают на вопросы what for? зачем? для чего?; for what purpose? с какой целью? и присоединяются к главному предложению союзами that, in order that, so that чтобы, для того чтобы; lest чтобы не. Сказуемое в обстоятельственных придаточных предложениях цели выражается обычно глаголом may + инфинитив, если сказуемое главного предложения выражено глаголом в настоящем или в будущем времени, и глаголом might + инфинитив, если сказуемое главного предложения выражено глаголом в прошедшем времени. Сказуемое в обстоятельственных предложениях цели может быть выражено также глаголом в форме сослагательного наклонения.Глагол-сказуемое в придаточных предложениях цели, вводимых союзом lest, стоит в утвердительной форме, так как союз lest имеет отрицательное значение (чтобы не). В обстоятельственных предложениях цели глагол may (might) на русский язык обычно не переводится и в сочетании с инфинитивом соответствует в русском языке глаголу в сослагательном наклонении. Глагол may (might) придает модальный оттенок сказуемому.

Обстоятельственные предложения следствия (Adverbial Clauses of Result)

Обстоятельственные предложения следствие присоединяются к главному предложению союзом that что, относящимся к наречию степени so так, такой в главном предложении, и составным союзом so that так. что. Эти обстоятельственные предложения имеют значение следствия, вытекающего из всего содержания главного предложения.

Обстоятельственные уступительные предложения (Adverbial Clauses of Concession)

Обстоятельственные уступительные предложения отвечают на вопрос in spite of what? несмотря на что? и присоединяются к главному предложению следующй союзами и союзными словами: though (although) хотя as хотя, however как бы ни, whoever кто бы ни, whatever какой бы ни, какой бы ни, whichever какой бы ни.В уступительных предложениях, вводимых союзом хотя, как бы ни употребляется обратный поряд слов. При составном именном сказуемом первое место в предложении занимает именная часть сказуемого, выраженная именем прилагательным, за которым следу союз as, затем глагол-связка и подлежащее, выражена именем существительным.

Обстоятельственные условные предложения (Adverbial Clauses of Condition)

Обстоятельственные условные предложения присоединяются к главному предложению союзами: if если; unless если не; provided (that), providing (that), on condition (that) при условии если, при условии что; in case (that) в случае если; supposing (that), suppose (that) если, если бы, в случае. Глагол-сказуемое придаточного предложения, присоединяемого к главному посредством союза unless, имеет утвердительную форму, поскольку союз unless имеет отрицательное значение (если не).Различают три типа сложноподчиненных условных предложений:

предложения, которые выражают вероятные, осуществимые предположения, относящиеся к настоящему, прошедшему или будущему времени. В придаточной и главной частях таких предложений употребляются глаголы в изъявительном наклонении. В главном предложении глагол-сказуемое употребляется в форме будущего времени, а в придаточном предложении—в форме настоящего времени для выражения значения будущего действия.
предложения, которые выражают маловероятные, малореальные предположение относящиеся к настоящему или будущему времени.
предложения, которые выражают неосуществленные предположения, относящящиеся к прошедшему времени. Для подчеркивания малой вероятности предположения в придаточном условном предложении, которое относится к будущему, употребляется II форма Indefinite Subjunctive, т. е. should + инфинитив без to, или were (для всех лиц) + инфинитив с частицей to.

Примеры всех типов предложения можно найти: http://enative.narod.ru/theory/manuals.htm (Грамматика английского языка. Беляева М. А., 1984 .Учебник грамматики английского языка. В книге доступно рассматриваются основные грамматические категории, типы предложений, части речи, временные формы глагола, синтаксические конструкции и др).

Sentences: simple, multiple, and complex

Simple Sentence

A Simple sentence (Lat. simplex, single-fold) is one that has only one Finite verb expressed or understood.

S ubject Predicate

The merchant, having much caused all his goods to be conveyed

property to sell, camels, there being no railway in

that country.

In this sentence there are five different verbs: “having”, “to sell”, “caused”, “to be conveyed”, “being”. Of these only one, viz. “caused”, is finite, as this is the only verb out of the five which has or could have a Subject attached to it. Since there is only one Finite verb, the sentence is Simple.

Double or Multiple Sentence

A double sentence is made up of two, a multiple sentence of more than two coordinate clauses. (This definition is not quite complete, but it will suffice for the present.)

Clauses are said to be co-ordinate, when one can be separated from the other so that each makes an independent sentence and gives an independent sense, ex. The sun rose with power, and the fog dispersed. He called at my house, but I was not at home.

Note. – Observe the difference between Sentence, Clause, and Phrase:

A sentence is a combination of words that contains at least one subject and one predicate. (If a subject as predicate is absent, but “implied”, the combination, though elliptical, is still a sentence.)
A sentence, which is part of a larger sentence, is called a clause.
A phrase is a combination of words that does not contain a predicate either expressed or understood, as “turning to

the left” (participial phrase), “on a hill” (adjective or adverb phrase), “because of” (preposition phrase).

Complex Sentence

A Complex sentence consists of a main clause (i.e. the clause containing (he verb of the sentence) with one or more subordinate or dependent clauses.

C omplex A merchant, who had much property to sell,

caused all his goods

to be conveyed on camels, as there was no railway

in that country.

S imple A merchant, having much property to sell, caused all his goods

to be conveyed on camels, there being no railway inthat country.

The two sentences mean precisely the same thing, and both have a Finite verb in common, “caused”. But in other respects they are very different. In the latter there is but one Finite verb, “caused”, and therefore the sentence is Simple. In the former, besides the Finite verb “caused”, there are two more Finite verbs, “had” and “was”, and therefore the sentence must be either Complex or Double, Which is it?

It is not Double, but Complex, because – (1) the clause “who had much property to sell” is connected with the noun “merchant”, which it qualifies as an adjective would do; and (2) the clause “as there was no railway in that country” is connected with the verb “caused”, which it qualifies as an adverb would do. Neither of these clauses can stand alone. So there is one Main or Containing clause and two Subordinate or Contained clauses.

There are three kinds of Subordinate clauses – the Noun-clause, the Adjective-clause, and the Adverb-clause; and these are defined as follows:

I. A Noun-clause is one which does (he work of a noun in relation to some word in some other clause.

II. An Adjective-clause is one which does the work of an adjective in relation to some word in some other clause.

III. An Adverb-clause is one which does the work of an adverb in relation to some word in some other clause.

Note. – The same clause may be a Noun-clause in one context, an Adjective-clause in another, and an Adverb-clause in another.

Where Moses was buried is still unknown.

- Noun-clause, subject to the verb “is”.

No one has seen the place where Moses was buried.

- Adjective-clause, qualifying the noun “place”.

Without knowing it the Arabs encamped where Moses was buried.

- Adverb-clause qualifying the verb “encamped”.

I. The Noun-clause

A Noun-clause is subject to all the liabilities and duties of a noun proper. It may therefore be the subject to a verb, the object to a verb, the object to a preposition, the complement of a verb, or in apposition with a noun:

That he will come back soon is certain Subj. to verb.

I shall be glad to know when you will return Obj. to verb.

This will sell for what it is worth Obj. to prep.

This is exactly what I expected Compl. to verb.

The rumour that he is sick is false App. to noun.

Note 1. – From the above examples it will be seen that a Noun-clause can be introduced either by the Conjunction “that” or by a Relative pronoun or by a Relative adverb.

Note 2. – A clause containing the very words used by a speaker is not to be regarded as a Noun-clause but should be treated as a single word or phrase:

All that he said was “I have seen you before”. – Here the italicised clause is the complement to the verb “was”. The whole sentence is regarded as a simple sentence.

Ex.1. Pick out the Noun-clause or clauses in each of the following, and say whether it is the Subject to some verb, or the Object to some verb, or the Object to some preposition, or the Complement to some verb, or in Apposition to some noun expressed. Supply the Conjunction “that” whenever it has been left out:

No one knows when he will come, or whether he will come at all, or whether he is even alive.
How this came to pass is not known to any one.
What is sauce for the goose is sauce for the gander.
It is quite evident rain will fall to-day.
The Equator shows where days and nights are of equal length.
What is one man’s meat is another man’s poison.
You must know that the air is never quite at rest.
I think I shall never clearly understand this.
We heard the school would open in ten days’ time.
The name “Volcano” indicates the belief of the ancient Greeks, that the burning hills of the Mediterranean were the workshops of the divine blacksmith, Vulcan.
Even a feather shows which way the wind is blowing.
Whatever faculty man has is improved by use.
The fool has said in his heart, “There is no God”.
“Know thyself”, was the advice given us by a Greek sage.
He did not know that his father had been shot.
The fact that you have not signed your name to a letter shows that you lack moral courage.
It will be easily understood how useful even the simplest weapons were to the first dwellers on the earth.
The question first occurring to the mind of a savage is how is fire to be made.
Common sense soon taught him that fire could be produced by rubbing two sticks together.
In chipping their flint weapons men must have seen that fire occasionally flashed out.
We learn from travellers that savages can produce fire in a few seconds.
He shouted out to the thief, “Leave this house”.
We cannot rely on what he says.
It is quite evident you have made a mistake.
It was very unfortunate that you were taken ill.
He was a man of fine-character except that he was rather timid.

II. Adjective-Clause

An Adjective-clause has but one function, viz. to qualify some noun or pronoun belonging to some other clause. In doing this it simply does the work of an adjective roper. All Adjective-clause is introduced by a Relative pronoun or by a Relative adverb. The noun or pronoun that stands as antecedent to the Relative pronoun or Relative adverb, is the word qualified by the Adjective-clause.

A man who has just come inquired after you.

This is not the book that I chose.

This is not such a horse as I should have bought.

We found it in the place where we had left it.

Note. – The Relative pronoun (when the case would be Accusative) is sometimes left out. (It is never left out when the case is either Nominative or Genitive.)

The food (that or which) he needed was sent.

Ex.2. Pick out the Adjective-clause or clauses in each of the following examples and point out the noun or pronoun qualified by it in some other clause. If the Relative pronoun has been omitted anywhere, supply it:

Man has the power of making instruments which bring into view stars whose light has taken a thousand years to reach the earth.
The first thing that man needed was some sharp-edged tool.
The exact time when the theft was committed was never found out.
The man by whom the theft was committed has been caught.
The house we lived in has fallen down.
This is the same story that I heard ten years ago.
It’s an ill wind that blows no one any good.
This is not such a book as I should have chosen.
He made his living by the presents he received from the men he served.
All that glitters is not gold.
In ponds, from which but a week before the wind blew clouds of dust, men now catch the re-animated fish.
A river is joined at places by tributaries that swell its waters.
Of what use is a knowledge of books to him who fails to practise virtue?
Fortune selects him for her lord, who reflects before acting.
Springs are fed by rain, which has percolated through the rocks or soil.
Nuncoomar prepared to die with that quiet fortitude with which the Bengalee, so backward, as a rule, in personal conflict, often encounters calamities for which there is no remedy.
I have seen the house where Shakespeare was born.
The plan you acted on has answered well.
They accepted every plan we proposed.
Surely the story you are telling me is not true.
The night is long that never finds the day.

III. The Adverb-Clause

An Adverb-clause does the work of an adverb to some verb, adjective, or adverb belonging to some other clause.

Those conjunction which are used for introducing an adverb-clause are called Subordinating.

Main Clause Adverb-Clause Adverbial Relation

He will succeed because he works hard. Reason or Cause

He worked so hard that he was taken ill. Result or Effect

He took medicine that he might get well. Purpose

I will do this if I am allowed. Condition

He is honest although he is poor Concession or Contrast

He likes you more than (he likes) me. Comparison

He likes you as much as I do.

The pain ceased *when the dentist came in. Time

Fools rush in *where angels fear to tread. Place

Note. – Those conjunctions which are marked with an asterisk*, namely “when”, “where”, are also known as Relative or Conjunctive adverbs. To the same class belong the words “how, why, whether, whither”.

After the conjunctions “though, when, unless, till, if, whether ... or, and while”, the Predicate-verb “to be” in some finite form is often understood. This must be supplied in the Analysis.

Ex. “Though (he was) much alarmed, he did not lose all hope. He sprained his foot, while “he was” walking in the dark. His opinion, whether (it is) right or wrong, does not concern me”.

When an adverb-clause is introduced by “than”, its Predicate-Verb is sometimes not expressed; it must therefore be borrowed from the clause to which it is subordinate: He loves you better than (he loves) me. He loves you better than I (love you).

Contracted Sentences

Double and multiple sentences often appear in a contracted or shortened form, so as to avoid the needless repetition of the same word:

(a) When there are two Finite verbs to the same Nominative, the Nominative is not usually mentioned more than once, but it must be repeated in the Analysis:

(1) The sun rose and (the wind) fitted the sky with light.

(2) He called at my house, but (he) left soon after.

(b) When there are two Nominatives to the same Finite verb, the Finite verb is not usually mentioned more than once, but it must usually be repeated in the analysis:

(1) He as well as you is guilty (He is guilty as well as you are).

(2) Either this man sinned or his parents (sinned).

(3) He is poor, but (he is) honest.

(4) He is diligent, and therefore (he is) prosperous.

(1) Youth and experience are seldom seen together.

(2) Time and tide wait for no man.

(d) In such sentences as the following, two Nominatives are combined to express a simple idea, and hence the verb must not be repeated:

(1) Truth-and-honesty is the best policy.

(2) Bread-and-butter is one of the best of diets.

DOUBLE AND MULTIPLE SENTENCES

Omission of the Conjunction “and”.

The “and” can be left out, when the aim of the writer is to give a string of sentences, all bearing upon one central fact. Only the last sentence or the last verb should have and prefixed to it in such a case.

The uses and power of steam have been thus described, one single word standing as subject to no less than twenty-six Finite verbs:

What will not the steam-engine do? It propels, elevates, lowers, pumps, drains, pulls, drives, blasts digs, cuts, saws, planes, bores, blows, forges, hammers, files, polishes, rivets, cards, spins, winds, weaves, coins, prints, and does more things than I can think of or enumerate.

Examples of multiple sentences analysed:

His greatest enemy as well as his best friends declared him to be innocent of the fault laid to his charge.
Either you or your son will sign his name at once on that paper.
He, not I, is certainly the author of that plan.

Ex.5. Double and Multiple sentences to be analysed. First write out each simple sentence in full (supplying all the omitted words), and then analyse according to the model:

The Lord knows the way of the righteous, but the way of the ungodly shall perish.
Little Betty has lost her sheep, and can’t tell where to find them.
She found them indeed, but it made her heart bleed; for they had left their tails behind them.
The hornet is our declared enemy, and a very troublesome one it is; however, it is well to make its acquaintance; for by doing so we shall be forced to admire it, and even to admire the instrument used by it for wounding us.
The life of some insects is brief, but very active; the female lives for two or three weeks, lays her eggs, and dies.
In wet weather the water rises and floats the eggs of the mosquito, producing an abundant harvest, whereas in dry seasons many eggs fail to reach the water, and so dry up and perish.
The barbers of Singapore have to shave heads and clean ears; for which latter operation they have a great array of tweezers, picks, and brushes.
Others carry a portable cooking-apparatus and serve up a meal of fish, rice, and vegetables for two or three halfpence; while porters and boatmen waiting to be hired are seen the other side.
In this way the spider lived in a precarious state for more than a week, and nature seemed to have fitted it for such a life; otherwise it could not have subsisted upon a single fly for so long a time.
Howard was then led to inquire into the condition of more distant jails; for which purpose he visited every large jail in England, and many of those in Scotland and Ireland.
At Venice he went with the greatest cheerfulness into the sick-house, where lie remained as usual for forty days, and thus exposed his life for the sake of his fellow-creatures.
The diver, on descending into the water, seizes the rope with the toes of his right foot, and takes hold of the bag with those of his left; nor does he expect to remain under water for less than two minutes.
The astrologers promise success to the divers; for they expect a liberal gift of pearls as a reward for the happy sense of confidence imparted by them to those men.
Sir Ralph the Rover tore his hair,

And beat his breast in his despair;

The waves rush in on every side,

And the ship sinks down beneath the tide.

We had a boat at our stern just before the storm, but she was staved by dashing against the ship’s rudder.
The ranger in his couch lay warm

And heard him plead in vain;

But oft amid December's storm

He’ll hear that voice again.

Complex Sentences

In complex sentences it often happens that one Subordinate clause is dependent on another Subordinate clause. To show how this works it will be best to give an example:

(1) The unfortunate man had not long lain in the cavern (a) before he heard a dreadful noise, (b) which seemed to be the roar of some wild beast, and frightened him very much.

(2) A merchant, who had much property to self, caused all his goods to be conveyed on camels, as there was no railway in that country.

(3) In sentence (1) the clause “before he heard a dreadful noise” is an adverb-clause qualifying the Finite verb “had lain”, which occurs in the Main clause: it is therefore Subordinate to the Main clause in the first degree. In the same sentence the clauses “which seemed to be the roar of some wild beast, and frightened him very much”, are adjective-clauses qualifying the noun “noise”, which occurs in a Subordinate clause; they are therefore Subordinate to the main clause in the second degree.

Now take sentence (2). The clause “who had much property to sell” is an adjective-clause qualifying the noun “merchant”, which occurs in the Main clause. It is therefore Subordinate to the Main clause in the first degree. In the same sentence the clause “as there was no railway in that country”, is an adverb-clause qualifying the Finite verb “caused”, which occurs in the Main clause. It is therefore Subordinate to the Main clause in the first degree.

Multiple Sentence Defined

We often meet with a sentence which is neither entirely Multiple nor entirely Complex, but a mixture of both. The following is an example:

“What is obvious is not always known, and what is known is not always present to those who need it”.

The sentence as a whole is Double, the two main parts being combined co-ordinately by “and”. But each part taken separately is a complex sentence, the first having one subordinate clause, and the second two.

A Multiple sentence, then, is one that is made up of two or more Co-ordinate sentences, any of which taken by itself may be either Simple or Complex.

The use of coma

Punctuation is used to make the meaning of a sentence clear to the reader. Some marks of punctuation are used to indicate in written English the pauses and stops which the voice makes in spoken English. They indicate not only where a pause should come but also the extent of the pause, the comma standing for a slight hesitation, the period for a longer one. Inflections in the voice are conveyed by the question mark and the exclamation point. Quotation marks and apostrophes serve to clarify writing. Although the apostrophe can be considered the least essential mark of punctuation, apostrophes are used by careful writers according to very definite rules based upon custom. Since punctuation is so closely elated to meaning, one probably should punctuate as he/she writes, for while one is writing he/she continually uses punctuation to group certain ideas together and to separate other ideas from each other. On the other hand, many writers prefer to concentrate first on getting their ideas onto paper; then they go back over what they have written and insert whatever punctuation is necessary to make the writing clear and conventionally correct. This latter process, known as proofreading, is a very important part of writing.

Using too much punctuation is just as bad as using too little. A mark of punctuation should be used for only two reasons: (1) because meaning demands it, or (2) because conventional usage requires it. Otherwise punctuation should be omitted.

Summary of Uses of the Comma

Use commas to separate items in a series.
Use commas to set off expressions which interrupt the sentence.

(1) Appositives

(2) Words in direct address

(3) Parenthetical expressions

(4) The words “well, yes, no, why, oh” when used at the beginning of a sentence

(5) Items in dates and addresses

(6) Nonrestrictive clauses

(7) Nonrestrictive participial phrases

3. Use a comma before “and, but, or, nor, for, yet” when they join main clauses unless the clauses are very short.

4. Use a comma after an introductory adverb clause, an introductory participial phrase, or a succession of introductory prepositional phrases.

5. Use a comma after the salutation of a friendly letter and after the closing of any letter.

1. Items in a Series

Use commas to separate items in a series.

He was formerly on the staff of the embassies in Moscow, Berlin, Vienna, and Madrid.

We had a refreshing, exciting, entertaining experience.

There were toys for the children, tools for Father, and books for Mother.

(1) Publishers disagree about the use of a comma before the “and” joining the last two items in a series. Usually writers follow the practice preferred by their publishers. There are some constructions in which the inclusion or omission of this comma affects the meaning of the sentence.

American folk songs may be classified in the following categories: marching songs, work songs, ballads, old hymns, and spirituals, [five categories].

American folk songs may be classified in the following categories: marching songs, work songs, ballads, old hymns and spirituals, [four categories].

Words customarily used in pairs are set off as one item in a series; bag and baggage, pen and ink, hat and coat, pork and beans, bread and butter, etc.

For lunch she served a fruit cup, macaroni and cheese, salad, ice cream and cake, and coffee.

(2) If all items in a series are joined by “or”, do not use commas. The weather man predicted rain or sleet or snow.

(3) Do not use a comma before the final adjective in a series if the adjective is thought of as part of the noun.

It was a cold, raw, dark November day. She is a pretty, charming, talented young woman.

If one of the words in a series modifies another word in the series, do not separate them by a comma.

She wore a long, bright blue gown.

(4) Short main clauses in a series may be separated by commas.

We worked, we played, we ate, and we gained weight.

2. Interrupters

Use commas to set off expressions which interrupt the sentence. To set off an expression takes two commas unless the expression comes first or last in the sentence.

(1) Appositives with their modifiers are set off by commas. An appositive is a word – with or without modifiers – that follows a noun or pronoun and identifies or explains it.

A syndicated column by Bernard Silverman, the noted author, will appear in the Times-News, a local paper.

When an appositive is so closely related to the word it modifies that it appears to be part of that word, no comma is necessary. An appositive of this kind is called a restrictive appositive. Usually it is one word.

His cousin Arthur

The novel Windswept

Your friend Jean

William the Conqueror

The conjunction and

(2) Words used in direct address are set off by commas.

I don’t know, Alice, where your brother is.

Sam, please come here.

Your grades are disappointing, my boy.

(3) Parenthetical expressions are set off by commas. The following expressions are commonly used parenthetically: “I believe, I am sure, on the contrary, on the other hand, after all, incidentally, of course, in my opinion, for example, to tell the truth”, etc.

My father will, I am sure, let me have the car tonight.

The weight of the car, of course, determines the price of the license.

(4) Certain words when used at the beginning of a sentence or remark are followed by a comma. These words are “well, yes, no, why, oh”.

Yes, you were elected.

Oh, I wouldn’t be too sure about that.

Why, the entire argument is false!

(5) In dates and addresses every item after the first one is enclosed by commas.

Our sentimental idea was to hold a class reunion on June 18, 1966, at the old high school.

Address me at 222 Twin Oaks Road, Akron 3, Ohio, after the first of March.

Their son was born on Monday, May 1, 1949, in Baltimore, Maryland.

When only the month and day are given, no punctuation is necessary: It was on May 10 that we began work.

When the items are joined by a preposition, do not use commas.

He lived at 33 J Alain Street in Passaic, New Jersey.

(b) A nonrestrictive clause is set off by commas. A nonrestrictive clause is a subordinate clause which is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence, but merely adds an idea to the sentence.

NONRESTRICTIVE Joan Thomas, who was offered scholarships to three colleges, will go to Ml. Holyoke in September.

The basic meaning of this sentence is Joan Thomas will go to Mr.Holyoke in September. The subordinate clause does not affect this basic meaning, it merely adds an idea to the sentence. It is a nonrestrictive clause because it does not restrict in any way the word it modifies – Joan Thomas. Clauses which modify proper nouns are nearly always nonrestrictive. The opposite of a nonrestrictive clause is a restrictive clause.

RESTRICTIVE Joan Thomas is the only senior who won scholarships to three colleges.

Here the subordinate clause is necessary to the sentence, for without it the sentence would not say the same thing: Joan Thomas is the only senior. The subordinate clause restricts the meaning of senior – senior who won scholarships to three colleges.

(7) A nonrestrictive participial phrase is set off by commas. A participial phrase is a group of related words containing a participle. Like a nonrestrictive clause, a nonrestrictive participial phrase is set off by commas because it is not necessary to the meaning of the sentence.

NONRESTRICTIVE My little brother, playing in the street, was struck by a car.

RESTRICTIVE A child playing in the street may be struck by a car.

NONRESTRICTIVE Mrs. Hampton, frightened by the thunder, locked herself in a closet.

RESTRICTIVE People frightened by thunder

often try to hide.

NONRESTRICTIVE The crowd broke up suddenly, dispersing rapidly in all directions.

RESTRICTIVE I watched the crowd dispersing rapidly in all directions.

3. Main Clauses

Use a comma before and, but, or, nor, for, yet when they join main clauses unless the clauses are very short.

Saturday’s Council meeting was unusually productive, for no one raised any objections.

The first two acts were slow moving, but the third act was full of action and suspense.

You go ahead and I'II follow, [main clauses too short to require punctuation]

When the conjunction joins two verbs, not two main clauses, a comma is not necessary.

I gave some good advice to Gerald and got some from him in return.

(The conjunction joins the verbs “gave” and “got”.)

I gave some good advice to Gerald, and he gave me some in return.

(The conjunction joins two main clauses.)

Many writers use the comma before these conjunctions – as they use the comma before and between the last two items in a series – only when necessary to keep the meaning clear.

NOT CLEAR: I grabbed the dog and the woodchuck limped away.

CLEAR: I grabbed the Jog, and the woodchuck limped away.

As you can see from the preceding examples, a reader may easily be confused if the comma is omitted.

This is especially true of the comma before the conjunction “or”, which should always be preceded by a comma when it means.

4. Introductory Clauses and Phrases

A comma should be used after an introductory adverb clause, an introductory participial phrase, or a succession of introductory prepositional phrases.

(1) Adverb Clause

While Mario put the costume on, his accompanist played Deep Purple. An adverbial clause at the end of a sentence is not usually set off.

His accompanist played “Deep Purple” while Mario put the costume on.

(2) Participal Phrases

Watching the game from his elm-tree vantage point, Elmer forgot to hold on.

A verbal noun ending in – ing and used as the subject of the sentence should not be confused with an introductory participial phrase.

Washing and polishing the car is fun. (verbal nouns as subject)

Washing and polishing the car, I developed some sore muscles. (participial phrase)

(3) Succession of Prepositional Phrases

At the edge of the deep woods near Lakeville in Cumberland County, he built a small log cabin.

A single introductory prepositional phrase need not be followed by a comma unless it is parenthetical (by the way, on the contrary, etc) or necessary to prevent confusion.

With the weak, competition is unpopular. In the morning I am never wide awake.

PUNCTUATION

Period

Use a period at the end of a simple declarative sentence.

The essays were all finished early.

Use a period at the end of a polite request.

Please finish your compositions on time.

Use a period after a mild request.

Notice the absence of fresh air in this room.

Use a period after an indirect question.

They asked if the professor would appear that day.

Use a period with most abbreviations.

Dr. Mr. Mrs. Ms. St. asst. (these are used before names)

M.D. D.D. Jr. Sr. Ph.D. Esq. (Do not use a period for abbreviations for agencies or acronyms)

NAACP NATO NAFTA MLA

Use periods in parenthetical references and in Works Cited and Bibliographies. See examples on MLA sheet.
Use periods with decimals, fractions and fractional amounts of money. Write money with cents in figures not in words.

$4.95

Question mark

Use a question mark after sentences which ask a direct question. What makes you think your answer is correct?
Use a question mark within quote marks when quoting someone’s direct question. “Is this really true?” Debbie asked. George then asked, “Aren’t you ever sure of yourself?”
Use a question mark after questions included in statements.
Then the teacher asked. Why does Debbie always have doubts?

Use question marks with a series of questions within a sentence.

One must always consider who? what? where? when? and why a problem occurred hen writing a thesis.

5. Use a question mark with doubtful information.

She gave the answer to the problem as 28 (7) but her computations did not show how she arrived at that figure.

Exclamation mark

Use an exclamation mark to indicate words with heavy emotional force. Fire! Snake! Get out! NEVER DOUBLE OR TRIPLE THE MARK!
Use the exclamation to indicate sentences which show extreme joy, fear, shock outrage or irony. Down with term papers!

Comma

Use a comma between independent clauses linked by a coordinating conjunction! Dark tried to explain, but Lois would not listen.
Use commas after introductions elements in a series.

However, Dark persisted with his explanation.

3. Use commas to enclose nonrestrictive elements.

Dark Kent, who is a talented manipulator, knew he could convince Lois to help him with the assignment.

4. Use commas with nonrestrictive appositives.

Superman, Dark Kent, is an interesting illusion.

Nonrestrictive elements are those which are not necessary for the sentence meaning, as contrasted restrictive elements can not be removed from a sentence without changing meaning.

5. Use commas with most absolute phrases.

His costume approved by his mother, Dark went to work.

6. Use commas with elements that interrupt or stand outside the sentence or independent clause structure.

Dark, you must improve your comma usage.

My, my, my, I do enjoy watching “Superman”.

Yes, the new series is certainly interesting.

No, I do not wish to watch the re-runs of the old series.

7. Use commas with elements that stand outside or within independent clauses, conjunctive adverbs (Superman’s flying, therefore, must be super) and transitional words (Thus, Lois is always safe in his grasp.)

Use commas to set apart words which are contrary. Superman, not Lois, is really the best reporter.
Use commas before elements at the end of independent clauses. That is a surprise, isn’t it?
Use commas with elements in a series.

The Joker, the Penguin, Catwoman, and Robin are characters in the “Batman” series, in the “Superman” series.

11. Use commas after introductions to quotations.

Alphonse Brown indicates, “Superman is a figment of the starved population which assumes that society's ills can only be solved through a super human being.”

12. Use commas after salutations and closings as in the following letter.

October 12,1993

Dear Lois and Clark,

You have provided protection and security for Metropolis for years, so now, we would like to invite you to consider Grand Rapids, Michigan, as your new challenge. We would, welcome your attention, and eagerly await your reply.

Sincerely,

13. Use commas in addresses and in dates, (see ex. 12)

14. Use commas in long numbers with more than three digits.

15. Use commas with titles and classifications, С. К. Superman, Jr., will fly again in 1997.

David R. Brown, M.D., has never had a malpractice suit against him.

16. Use commas to clarify meaning. Years before, Clark met Lois.

Dash

Use a dash to connect an introductory list to the rest of the sentence.
Use a dash to set interruptions apart from the rest of the sentence.
Use a dash to set apart appositives and modifiers if they are particularly strong.
Use a dash for a concluding list or summary.

Hypen

Use a hyphen to show related parts of word phrases: soon-forgotten.
Use a hyphen to connect two word numbers: twenty-two.
Use a hyphen between the prefix and word root to avoid confusion: re-create/recreate, re-sign/resign.
Try to avoid using a hyphen at the end of a line in formal writing as it frequently detracts from the flow of the sentence. However, if you must use one, place the hyphen only between syllables of the word. Never hyphenate a one syllable word.

Quotation marks

Use quotation marks to enclose direct quotations, unless the direct quote is more than four lines long. In the case of a block quote set the quote apart from the text without quote marks.
Single quote marks are used to indicate a quote within a quote. Even in block quotes, the single quote mark is used to indicate a quote within a quote.
Quotation marks are used to enclose: titles of poems titles of songs, titles of chapters in books titles of magazine articles, parenthetical families of titles of articles or chapters titles of essays in books.
Quotation marks are used to enclose words used in special ways (CLICHES) which might not otherwise be appropriate to the form or context.

Rules: periods and commas go inside quote marks unless a parenthetical citation is necessary; colons and semicolons go outside quote marks.

Semicolons

1. Use a semicolon between independent clauses not joined by coordinating conjunctions but bearing a dose relationship.

2. Use a semicolon between independent clauses joined by conjunctive adverbs or transitional expressions: however, moreover. Going to the circus is fun; however, I hate the animal abuse.

3. Use a semicolon between items in an already punctuated series.

Colon

Use a colon before a list or series with introductory word or words.
Use a colon before an element that defines, renames, or illustrates the preceding independent clause.
Use a colon before a formal quotation.
Use colons in time (32:30), biblical quotations (John 3:16), Memos (To: From:)

Рекомендуемые учебники и учебные пособия:

Основная литература:

Барабаш Т.А., Грамматика английского языка. М., 2001 г.

Червякова Л.Д., Практикум по теоретической грамматике английского языка. М., РУДН, 2006 г.

Каушанская В.М., Ковнер Р.Л. Грамматика английского языка. Л., 1963. Бархударов Д.С., Штеллинг Д.А. Грамматика английского языка. М., 1965. Веселовский А.Н. Историческая грамматика. М., 1989. Крылова И.П., Крылова Е.В. Грамматика английского языка. М., 1996. Верба Л.Г., Верба Г.В. Грамматика современного английского языка. М., 2000. Ilysh В.А. Тhe structure of Modern English, М., 1964. Ganshina М.А., Vasilevskауа N.М. English Grammar, М.,1964. Раlmer F.R.Тhe Еnglish Verb. L., 1974. Robins R.Н. General linguistics. Аn introductory survey. Grand Rapids. Мichigаn, 1998.

Дополнительная литература:

Смирницкий А.И. Морфология английского языка. М.. 1959. Смирницкий А.И. Синтаксис английского языка. М., 1957. Бархударов Д.С. Структура простого предложения современного английского языка. М., 1966.

Власова М.Г. Сравнительный анализ типов международных переговоров. Дис. … канд. пед. наук. – М., 1998.

Воронцова Г.Н. Очерки по грамматике английского языка. М., 1960.

Иофик Л.Л., Чахоян Л.Л. Хрестоматия по теоретической грамматике английского языка. Л., 1967. Иофик Л.Л. Сложные предложения в новоанглийском языке, Л., 1968. Жигадло В.Н., Иванова И.П., Иофик Л.Л. Современный английский язык. М., 1956. Караулов Ю.Н., Петров В.В. От грамматики текста к когнитивной теории дискурса // Дейк Ван Т.А. Язык. Познание. Коммуникация. – М.: Прогресс, 1989. С. 5-11

Саенко М.В. Нестандартные грамматические конструкции в современном испанском разговорном языке: Дис. … канд. филол. наук. – СПб., 1995.

Супрун А.В. Грамматика и семантика простого предложения (на материале испанского языка). – М.: Наука, 1977. Jespersen O. Каsеntials оf Еng1ish Grammar. L., 1933. Jespersen O. Тhe philosophy оf Grammar. L., 1935. Freis Ch. Тhе structure оf Еng1ish. N.Y., 1956. Ваrber С.L. Тhе Story of Language., 1964.

5. Методические указания по выполнению курсовых работ и рефератов.

Методические указания:

1. Рефераты составляются на листах формата А-4. Объем реферата - от 15 машинописных страниц (принимаются и рукописные варианты, объем которых зависит от почерка). Страницы заполняются с одной стороны.

2. Структура реферата должна включать в себя введение, основную часть, заключение и список литературы. Во введении делается постановка проблемы (цель работы, основные исследуемые вопросы, актуальность темы) и обзор имеющейся литературы. Заключение содержит выводы в соответствии с поставленными вопросами.

3. Реферат должен включать в себя анализ исторических источников (законов, международных договоров, мемуаров и т. д. - в зависимости от темы). В случае, если тема довольно широка (например, о методике исследования), необходимо иллюстрировать свои доводы.

4. Список литературы должен насчитывать минимум 5 наименований без учета учебников и энциклопедий. Наличие в нем публикаций документов (специальных изданий или в составе хрестоматий) строго обязательно.

5. Реферат необходимо сдать в установленные сроки. Если он отсутствует или отклонен, студент не допускается к сдаче экзамена. На экзамене возможны вопросы по теме подготовленного реферата.

6. Правила выполнения письменных работ (контрольных текстовых работ) :

1. Прежде чем приступить к выполнению контрольной работы, необходимо тщательно изучить грамматический и лексический материал семестра и выполнить письменные и устные упражнения к урокам, рекомендованные преподавателем.

2. Выполняйте письменные контрольные работы в отдельной тетради. На тетради напишите свою фамилию, инициалы, шифр (если он имеется), адрес, номер контрольной работы.

3. Работа должна быть выполнена аккуратно, четким почерком. При выполнении работы оставляйте в тетради широкие поля для замечаний рецензента.

4. Выполняйте задания работы в той последовательности, в которой они даются в тексте контрольной работы.

5. Необходимо переписать задание упражнения. Текст упражнения следует писать на левой странице, а выполненное задание упражнения – на правой.

7. Комплект индивидуальных заданий (рефератов) по дисциплине, тематика курсовых работ (проектов).

Индивидуальные задания:

Вопросы по теоретической грамматике для контроля:

1. Сопоставительный анализ развития дескриптивной и прескриптивной грамматике.

2. Развитие морфологии в классической научной грамматике.

3. Представители трансформационной (структурной) лингвистики и их вклад в развитие грамматики английского языка.

4. Средства образования грамматических форм. ( синтетические и аналитические)

5. Семантическая классификация существительных.

6. Морфологическая классификация существительных и глаголов.

7. Функции личных форм глаголов ( инфинитива и герундия в предложении)

8. Грамматическое значение, грамматическая форма, грамматическая категория.

9. Независимое использование времен в английском языке ( какие времена и в каких типах предложений)

10. Категория наклонения (определение, типы; 4 типа сослагательного наклонения; использование модальных глаголов в Subjunctive II после wish и if.)

11. Double and Multiple sentences to be analysed. First write out each simple sentence in full (supplying all the omitted words), and then analyse according to the model:

The Lord knows the way of the righteous, but the way of the ungodly shall perish.

Little Betty has lost her sheep, and can’t tell where to find them.

She found them indeed, but it made her heart bleed; for they had left their tails behind them.

The hornet is our declared enemy, and a very troublesome one it is; however, it is well to make its acquaintance; for by doing so we shall be forced to admire it, and even to admire the instrument used by it for wounding us.

The life of some insects is brief, but very active; the female lives for two or three weeks, lays her eggs, and dies.

In wet weather the water rises and floats the eggs of the mosquito, producing an abundant harvest, whereas in dry seasons many eggs fail to reach the water, and so dry up and perish.

The barbers of Singapore have to shave heads and clean ears; for which latter operation they have a great array of tweezers, picks, and brushes.

Others carry a portable cooking-apparatus and serve up a meal of fish, rice, and vegetables for two or three halfpence; while porters and boatmen waiting to be hired are seen the other side.

In this way the spider lived in a precarious state for more than a week, and nature seemed to have fitted it for such a life; otherwise it could not have subsisted upon a single fly for so long a time.

Howard was then led to inquire into the condition of more distant jails; for which purpose he visited every large jail in England, and many of those in Scotland and Ireland.

At Venice he went with the greatest cheerfulness into the sick-house, where lie remained as usual for forty days, and thus exposed his life for the sake of his fellow-creatures.

The diver, on descending into the water, seizes the rope with the toes of his right foot, and takes hold of the bag with those of his left; nor does he expect to remain under water for less than two minutes.

The astrologers promise success to the divers; for they expect a liberal gift of pearls as a reward for the happy sense of confidence imparted by them to those men.

Sir Ralph the Rover tore his hair,

And beat his breast in his despair;

The waves rush in on every side,

And the ship sinks down beneath the tide.

We had a boat at our stern just before the storm, but she was staved by dashing against the ship’s rudder.

The ranger in his couch lay warm

And heard him plead in vain;

But oft amid December's storm

He’ll hear that voice again.

12.. Miscellaneous sentences to be analysed.

1. Blessed is the man that walked not in the counsel of the wicked, nor stood in the way of sinners, nor sat in the seat of the scornful.

2. Nothing can describe the confusion of thought which I felt when I sank into the water.

3. At four o’clock p.m. we reached York, which is a fine old town dating back to the time of the Romans, though they called it by a different name that I cannot now remember.

4. If you put the end of an iron rod in the fire and hold it there, you not only heat the end, but the whole of the rod up to the end that you hold in your hand.

5. The elections proved that since the spring the distrust and hatred with which this Government was regarded had made fearful progress.

6. These men, whom I have never known, have suddenly left me, merely because I asked them to work a little overtime on account of certain orders that I unexpectedly received this morning from the Admiralty.

7. Sir Isaac Newton, after deep meditation, discovered that there is force in nature called attraction, by virtue of which every particle of matter in the world draws towards itself every other particle of matter with a force that is proportionate to its mass and distance.

8. Everywhere there is a class of men who cling with fondness to whatever is ancient.

9. When she I loved was strong and gay

And like a rose in June,

I to her cottage bent my way

Beneath the evening moon. Wordsworth.

10. After his schooling was finished, his father desiring him to be a merchant like himself, gave him a ship freighted with various sorts of merchandise, so that he might go and trade about the world, and become a help to his parents who were now advanced in age.

11. I heard a thousand blended notes,

While in a grove I sat reclined

In that sweet mood when pleasant thoughts

Bring sad thoughts to the mind. Wordsworth.

12. Content is a pearl of great price, and whoever procures it at the expense of ten thousand desires, makes a good purchase.

13. The rocks that first meet the eye of the traveller, as he enters the Suez Canal, are a part of the breakwater that extends out into the sea for two miles on either side of the canal.

14. This poor widow had cast in more than they all; for they cast in of their abundance; but she of her want had cast in all that she had, even all her living.

15. Air, when it is heated, expands, or in other words the particles of which it is composed are driven farther and farther apart from one another; and so the air being less dense, less compact, or less solid, becomes proportionately lighter.

16. Our deeds shall travel with us from afar,

And what we have been makes us what we are. G. Eliot.

17. Foul deeds will rise,

Though all the earth overwhelm them, to men’s eyes. Shakespeare.

18. An anonymous letter signifies that the writer lacks moral courage to affix his name, and either cannot or dare not face the contents.

19. Just so we have heard a baby, mounted on the shoulders of its father, cry out, “How much taller I am than papa!”

20. I like a rascal to be punished, when I am quite sure that his guilt has been proved before a jury who had no prejudice against him, before they began hearing his case.

21. The electricity of the air stimulates the vegetation of the trees, and scarcely a week passes before the plants are covered with the larvae of butterflies, the forest is murmuring with the hum of insects, and the air is harmonious with the voices of birds. – Tennet’s Ceylon.

22. As a goddess, she had whims and fancies of her own; and one of these was that no woman was permitted to touch the verge of her mountain or pluck the berries of a certain bush that grew upon the sides. – Volcano of the Hawaians.

23. I shun a friend who pronounces my actions to be good when they are bad; but I like a simple and sincere friend, who holds my faults as he would a looking-glass before my face, and compels me to see them.

24. He that bullies those who are not in a position to resist him may be a snob, but cannot be a gentleman.

25. When the eggs have been transformed into the state of larva or caterpillar they change their skin three times in the course of two or three weeks, each change being preceded by a period of repose and succeeded by one of activity and voracity.

26. Every one who is not blind has seen a butterfly, that light and happy insect, which flies from flower to flower in fields and gardens, adding brightness and beauty wherever it goes.

13. Convert from Multiple to Simple:

An ass accidentally found a lion’s skin, and put it on to frighten the other beasts.
He was fatigued with walking, and so he sat down to take a little rest.
Turn to the left and you will find the house of your friend.
Not only the tank, but even a part of the river was frozen over with ice.
The Judge, as well as the jury, believed the prisoner to be guilty.
You must work hard the whole term, and then you will get promotion.
He was the son of poor parents, and therefore he had to encounter many trials and difficulties at the outset of his career.
He was a poor man, and yet he was of an independent spirit at all times.
I advised him to make the best use of his time, but he paid no heed.
He was much frightened, but not much hurt.
Every effort was made to check the spread of cholera; yet a large number of persons died.
He was well fitted for that post by character and attainments; only he was rather too young and inexperienced.
He did his best to be punctual, but still he was occasionally behind time.
He is well versed in books, but wanting in common sense.
You must work hard, or you will not get promotion.
Give us some clear proofs of your assertion, otherwise no one will believe you.
A certain fowler fixed his net on the ground, and scattered a great many grains of rice about it.
The pigeons flew down to pick up the rice grains; for they were all hungry.
The old man frequently begged his sons to live together in peace, but he was disregarded.

(Дополнительные задания см. Л.Д. Червякова Практикум по теоретической грамматике английского языка. стр. 146-154)

Темы рефератов:

School Grammar
N. Chomsky and Transformational Generative Grammar
James Harris – writer on universal grammar
The language of Johnson and Lowth
Avram Noam Chomsky. His contribution to linguistics
Ch. Fries. The contribution to English grammar
Universal Languages Schemes in Seventeenth – century. Britain: John Wilkins
Номинативные средства языка
Cross-cultural research: Some questions and few answers
The lexical and grammatical changes in the modern English grammar

Темы курсовых работ:

Английский язык как язык синтетического строя.
Английское и русское простое предложение: сопоставительный анализ.
Английское местоимение.
Английское причастие.
Английское простое предложение.
Артикль.
Виды синтаксических связей в современном английском языке.
Второстепенные члены английского предложения.
Генеративная грамматика, ее задачи и способы исследования.
Главные члены английского предложения.
Грамматика как раздел языкознания.
Грамматические единицы.
Деепричастие и герундий: сопоставительный анализ.
Залог и наклонение: сопоставительный анализ английского и русского языков.
Имя прилагательное в английском и русском языках: сопоставительный анализ.
Имя числительное в английском и русском языках: сопоставительный анализ.
Инфинитивные конструкции в современном английском языке.
История европейской грамматической мысли.
Категория определенности/неопределенности и способы ее выражения в современном английском языке.
Личные формы английского глагола.
Модальные глаголы в современном английском языке.
Неличные формы глагола в современном английском языке. Их характеристика.
Понятие грамматической категории. Грамматические категории английского глагола.
Понятие грамматической категории. Грамматические категории английского имени существительного.
Понятие диахронии и синхронии в языке.
Предложение и понятие предикативности (на примере английского языка).
Предложение как важнейшая единица грамматического строя языка.
Предмет, объект, задачи и методы изучения грамматики.
Придаточные предложения времени и условия в современных английском и русском языках: сопоставительный аспект.
Причастие в английском и русском языках: сопоставительный анализ.
Простое английское предложение.
Самостоятельные и служебные части речи в английском языке.
Синтагматические и парадигматические отношения в языке (на примере английского языка).
Система глагольных времен в современном английском языке.
Слово как одна из основных единиц грамматики. Понятие грамматического значения.
Словообразовательные модели современного английского языка.
Сложное английское предложение.
Сложноподчиненное английское предложение.
Сложносочиненное английское предложение.
Сопоставительная характеристика грамматических категорий английского и русского имени существительного.
Сопоставительная характеристика грамматических категорий английского и русского глагола.
Сослагательное наклонение в современном английском языке.
Способы выражения будущего времени в современном английском языке.
Способы выражения модальности в современных английском и русском языках.
Типы придаточных предложений в современном английском языке.
Учение об актуальном членении предложения.
Формальная грамматика, ее задачи и способы исследования.
Функциональная грамматика, ее задачи и способы исследования.
Языки аналитического и синтетического строя.
Языковые универсалии.

8.Образцы студенческих работ (рефераты и курсовые работы):

Работа 1.

Noam Chomsky’s contribution to linguistics

Plan

1. A short Summary of Chomsky’s works

2. Noam Chomsky’s approach to science.

3. the aim of linguistics according to many American linguists.

4. The week points in structural grammar according to Noam Chomsky

finite number of phonemes and morphemes, but infinite number of sentences
the relations within sentences
ambiguous sentences

5. the introduction of the notion “deep structure”

Generative grammar
The aim of the linguistic theory expressed by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures
The full list of Chomsky’s works

Syntactic Structures was a distillation of his book Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory (1955, 75) in which he introduces transformational grammars.

The Principles and Parameters approach (P&P) — developed in his Pisa 1979 Lectures, later published as Lectures on Government and Binding (LGB) — make strong claims regarding universal grammar: that the grammatical principles underlying languages are innate and fixed,

More recently, in his Minimalist Program (1995), while retaining the core concept of "principles and parameters", Chomsky attempts a major overhaul of the linguistic machinery involved in the LGB model, stripping from it all but the barest necessary elements, while advocating a general approach to the architecture of the human language faculty that emphasizes principles of economy and optimal design, reverting to a derivational approach to generation, in contrast with the largely representational approach of classic P&P.

Throughout the history of the study of man there has been a fundamental opposition between those who believe that progress is to be made by a rigorous observation of man's actual behavior and those who believe that such observations are interesting only in so far as they reveal to us hidden laws that only partially reveal themselves to us in behavior. Noam Chomsky, one of the most famous amarican linguists is the searcher of hidden laws.

The accepted model or "paradigm" of linguistics was confronted, largely by Chomsky's work. Chomsky broke the old model altogether and created a completely new one. Before his the publication of his Syntactic Structures in 1957, many, American linguists regarded the aim of their discipline as being the classification of the elements of human languages.

The aim of linguistic theory was to provide the linguist with a set of rigorous methods, a set of discovery procedures which he would use to extract from the "corpus" the phonemes, the morphemes, and so on.

As a graduate student at Pennsylvania, Chomsky attempted to apply the methods of structural linguistics to the study of syntax, but found that the methods that had apparently worked so well with phonemes and morphemes did not work very well with sentences. Each language has a finite number of phonemes and a finite though quite large number of morphemes. It is possible to get a list of each; but the number of sentences in any natural language like French or English is, strictly speaking, infinite. There is no limit to the number of new sentences that can be produced; and for each sentence, no matter how long, it is always possible to produce a longer one. Within structural grammar it is not easy to account for the fact that languages have an infinite number of sentences.

Furthermore the structuralist methods of classification do not seem able to account for all of the internal relations within sentences, or the relations that different sentences have to each other. For example, , "John is easy to please" and "John is eager to please" look as if they had exactly the same grammatical structure. But the grammar of the two is quite different. In the first sentence, "John" functions as the direct object of the verb to please; the sentence means: it is easy for someone to please John. Whereas in the second "John" functions as the subject of the verb to please; the sentence means: John is eager that he please someone. That this is a difference in the syntax of the sentences comes out clearly in the fact that English allows us to form the noun phrase "John's eagerness to please" out of the second, but not "John's easiness to please" out of the first. There is no easy or natural way to account for these facts within structuralist assumptions.

Another set of syntactical facts is the existence of certain types of ambiguous sentences where the ambiguity derives not from the words in the sentence but from the syntactical structure. For example "I like her cooking." It can mean, I like what she cooks, I like the way she cooks, I like the fact that she cooks, even, I like the fact that she is being cooked.

Chomsky was eventually led to claim that these sentences have several different syntactical structures, that the uniform surface structure of, e.g., "I like her cooking" conceals several different underlying structures which he called "deep" structures. The introduction of the notion of the deep structure of sentences, not always visible in the surface structure, is a crucial element of the Chomsky revolution in linguistics.

Chomsky argued that the goal of linguistic description should be to construct a theory that would account for the infinite number of sentences of a natural language. Such a theory would show which strings of words were sentences and which were not, and would provide a description of the grammatical structure of each sentence.

Such descriptions would have to be able to account for such facts as the internal grammatical relations and the ambiguities described above. The description of a natural language would be a formal deductive theory which would contain a set of grammatical rules that could generate the infinite set of sentences of the language, would not generate anything that was not a sentence, and would provide a description of the grammatical structure of each sentence. Such a theory came to be called a "generative grammar" because of its aim of constructing a device that would generate all and only the sentences of a language.

The aim of the linguistic theory expressed by Chomsky in Syntactic Structures (1957) was essentially to describe syntax, that is, to specify the grammatical rules underlying the construction of sentences. In Chomsky's mature theory described in Aspects of the Theory of Syntax (1965), the aims become more ambitious: to explain all of the linguistic relationships between the sound system and the meaning system of the language. To achieve this, the complete "grammar" of a language, in Chomsky's technical sense of the word, must have three parts, a syntactical component that generates and describes the internal structure of the infinite number of sentences of the language, a phonological component that describes the sound structure of the sentences generated by the syntactical component, and a semantic component that describes the meaning structure of the sentences. The heart of the grammar is the syntax.

The first application of the approach was to Modern Hebrew, a fairly detailed effort in 1949–50. The second was to the native American language Hidatsa (the first full-scale generative grammar), mid-50s.

Sometimes generative grammar analyses break down when applied to languages which have not previously been studied, and many changes in generative grammar have occurred due to an increase in the number of languages analyzed. It is claimed that linguistic universals in semantics have become stronger rather than weaker over time. The existence of linguistic universals in syntax, which is the core of Chomsky's claim, is still highly disputed. Still, Richard Kayne suggested in the 1990s that all languages have an underlying Subject-Verb-Object word order. One of the prime motivations behind an alternative approach, the functional-typological approach or linguistic typology (often associated with Joseph Greenberg), is to base hypotheses of linguistic universals on the study of as wide a variety of the world's languages as possible, to classify the variation seen, and to form theories based on the results of this classification. The Chomskyan approach is too in-depth and reliant on native speaker knowledge to follow this method, though it has over time been applied to a broad range of languages.

Chomsky's work is one of the most remarkable intellectual achievements of the present era, comparable in scope and coherence to the work of Keynes or Freud. It has done more than simply produce a revolution in linguistics; it has created a new discipline of generative grammar and is having a revolutionary effect on two other subjects, philosophy and psychology. Not the least of its merits is that it provides an extremely powerful tool even for those who disagree with many features of Chomsky's approach to language. In the long run, I believe his greatest contribution will be that he has taken a major step toward restoring the traditional conception of the dignity and uniqueness of man.

Noam Chomsky’s Works:

Chomsky (1951). Morphophonemics of Modern Hebrew. Master's thesis, University of Pennsylvania.
Chomsky (1955). Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory.
Chomsky (1955). Transformational Analysis. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania.
Chomsky, Noam, Morris Halle, and Fred Lukoff (1956). "On accent and juncture in English." In For Roman Jakobson. The Hague: Mouton
Chomsky (1957). Syntactic Structures. The Hague: Mouton. Reprint. Berlin and New York (1985).
Chomsky (1964). Current Issues in Linguistic Theory.
Chomsky (1965). Aspects of the Theory of Syntax. Cambridge: The MIT Press.
Chomsky (1965). Cartesian Linguistics. New York: Harper and Row. Reprint. Cartesian Linguistics. A Chapter in the History of Rationalist Thought. Lanham, Maryland: University Press of America, 1986.
Chomsky (1966). Topics in the Theory of Generative Grammar.
Chomsky, Noam, and Morris Halle (1968). The Sound Pattern of English. New York: Harper & Row.
Chomsky (1968). Language and Mind.
Chomsky (1972). Studies on Semantics in Generative Grammar.
Chomsky (1975). The Logical Structure of Linguistic Theory.
Chomsky (1975). Reflections on Language.
Chomsky (1977). Essays on Form and Interpretation.
Chomsky (1986). Knowledge of Language: Its Nature, Origin, and Use.
Chomsky (1998). On Language.
Chomsky (2000). New Horizons in the Study of Language and Mind.
Chomsky (2000). The Architecture of Language (Mukherji, et al, eds.).
Chomsky (2001). On Nature and Language (Adriana Belletti and Luigi Rizzi, ed.).

1) John R. Searle, Chomsky's Revolution in Linguistics, 1972

2) Chomsky N. Aspects of the Theory of Syntax.- Cambr., Mass., 1965

Работа 2.

Samuel Johnson

Introduction

The recognized need in its simplest terms was for a dictionary, not merely of hard words, but one which would include all the words in English and a grammar that would detail their proper usage. Together these two would form an authority for settling disputes in usage. People recognized that without a dictionary and a grammar there would be no way of ascertaining what was correct in diction or what constructions were standard. In lieu of an English Academy, the two most important substitutions for it were Samuel Johnson's Dictionary of the English Language (1755) and Robert Lowth's Short Introduction to English grammar (1762).

Johnson's Dictionary

The goals of a dictionary as Johnson originally planned it sounded much like those of an academy: to ascertain, refine, and fix the language. Johnson thought to maintain the purity of English, at what stage of its development he did not make clear, and to ascertain primarily the meaning of English words (Johnson 1747: 4). He was also interested in making the pronunciation of English permanent and thus, he hoped, to promote the longevity of the language. At the same time he realized that it might be as impossible to change the language of a nation as it is to change the morals of a people through books, yet he hoped to accomplish this at least in part so that "it may contribute to the preservation of antient, and the improvement of modern writers" (Johnson 1747: 33). This was his purpose at the outset as given in his book The Plan of a Dictionary. By the time the dictionary was published eight years later, his purpose had become somewhat more modest. In the Preface to his Dictionary, it can be seen that the number of goals Johnson set himself have been reduced to two, both essentially concerned with words only: to collect the words of the language and to correct words that are correctable and proscribe those that are not. Johnson realized that not all words are correctable, since language is a reflection of its imperfect human origin. By registering these “anomalies”, Johnson hoped that they could be curtailed and prevented from increasing. He felt that it was the duty of the lexicographer to assume the role of arbiter of what was correct and what was incorrect in English (Johnson 1755: [1]). Johnson was quite ready to assume this role.

The public was hungry for an authoritative source. Johnson gave it to them, to such an extent that even today when a lexicographer tries to abdicate this position of authority to become only a recorder of language, public outcry is tremendous. People of Johnson’s era looked to the lexicographer as a kind of superior being who had the right to rule on what words were acceptable and what pronunciation words were to be given. Baugh and Cable state that "this attitude was well-nigh universal in Johnson's day and was not repugnant to the lexicographer himself" (1978: 271). One way in which this authoritarian role of the lexicographer reveals itself in the dictionary is in the labels which Johnson provides for the propriety of the words. He uses such labels as “proper”, "improper", “corrupt", “cant", "barbarous", and "vulgar”, all clearly judgmental descriptions.

In describing the method by hich he compiled the dictionary, Johnson drew upon dictionaries for foreigners, dictionaries of "hard words", noting that they were woefully deficient. When these obvious sources had been exhausted, Johnson proceeded to glean more words of English from books of the best writers of the day, using, as he puts it, "fortuitous and unguided excursions into books” (Johnson 1755: [3]). What is important to note in this process is the fact that Johnson firmly established the principle of induction for ascertaining the eaning of words by recording the usage of words encountered in his reading. In fact, in the Preface to the Dictionary, he notes that the "sense may easily be collected entire from the examples" (Johnson 1755: [6]). An interesting report of the method Johnson used is as follows: "Johnson...had, for the purpose of carrying on this arduous work…taken a handsome house in Gough Square, and fitted up a room in it with desks and other accommodations for amanuenses, who, to the number of five or six, he kept constantly under his eye. An interleaved copy of Bailey's dictionary in folio he made the repository of the several articles, and these he collected by incessant reading of the best authors in our language, in the practice whereof, his method was to score with a black-lead pencil the word by him selected, and give them over to his assistants to insert in their places. The books he used for this purpose were what he had in his own collection, a copious but miserably ragged one, and all such as he could borrow; which latter, if ever they came back to those that lent them, were so defaced as to be scarce worth owning, and yet, some of his friends were glad to receive and entertain them as curiosities” (Hawkins 1961:77). As a common practice, Johnson tried to collect words that were in general use or in the works of "polite" writers. He did not include the specific words of particular professions (Johnson 1747, 4).

Another way in which Johnson curtailed his goals since the publication of Plan may be seen in the amount of discussion given to structure of English in the Preface of the Dictionary. Although the Preface includes fifteen pages of what would be called grammar, only twelve lines are given to syntax. This was apparently quite a disappointment for those who had hoped a more comprehensive treatment of the structure of English would be included. Johnson found dealing with the words of English to be a sufficiently arduous task. Another way in which the finished dictionary was less that what had been planned relates to the matter of pronunciation. Johnson had originally thought that a dictionary could help arbitrate between variation in pronunciation. He had intended to use the pronunciation of the best speakers whose pronunciation showed the least variation from the written form of the word. However, when the Dictionary was published without a guide to pronunciation and the question of variation remained unresolved, Johnson pointed out that "the best speaker of the House of Lords (Chesterfield) and the best speaker of the House of Commons differed in the pronunciation of the word great. Johnson felt he could not arbitrate between equally reputable speakers of the mother tongue" (Bambas 1980: 92). Other lexicographers in years since have, however, taken this task upon their shoulders.

Johnson's Dictionary was immensely successful in the matter of spelling standardization. He did not go so far as to try to reform spelling, although people would have been willing for him to use his authority to introduce a better system. But his dictionary did promote an attitude in favor of traditional spelling. He says as much. "The present usage of spelling, where the present usage can be distinguished, will therefore in this work be generally followed, yet there will be often occasion to observe, that it is in itself inaccurate, and tolerated rather than chosen; particularly, when by a change of one letter, or more, the meaning of a word is obscured, as in farrier, for ferrier, as it was formerly written, from ferrum or fer" (Johnson 1747: 11).

Johnson also reconsidered his goal of fixing the English language once and for all. It had been stated in the Plan that one of the purposes for writing a dictionary was to fix the language; however, when the Dictionary was published, the Preface stated that it was impossible for a lexicographer to "embalm" the language and keep it from "corruption" and "decay". Johnson states his opinion that academies which were founded with this goal have done their work in vain. "Sounds are too volatile and subtile for legal restraints; to enchain syllables, and to lash the wind, are equally the undertakings of pride, unwilling to measure its desire by its strength" (Johnson 1755: [10]). He remarks that he had flattered himself at first into thinking that he could indeed do this, but that he came to realize that it was an expectation "which neither reason nor experience can justify" (Johnson 1755: [10]).

In Johnson's dictionary, for the first time in English, the meanings of words were given along with examples of their usage from well-selected authorities. This had been done before in dictionaries of other languages, notably the dictionary of the Academia della Crusca, which probably Johnson knew, but this was the first time that this method had been used in English. Another valuable innovation in Johnson's dictionary was the enumeration of various meanings for each word. And it was the first time that a dictionary could by any means be called a standard, rather than a mere list of hit-and-miss words. It truly exhibited the vocabulary of the English language for the first time ever, it was replete with examples from notable writers, it offered a spelling which, if not always correct, at least was fixed and could be used as a reference. There were some defects. The chance for a reformed spelling was missed, as was mentioned above. The words themselves weren't always clearly English words. Some examples of words that Johnson put forward as English words are these: denominable, opiniatry, ariolation, assation, ataraxy, clancular, comminuible, conclusible, incompossible, indigitate. The right of these words to be included in an English dictionary was questionable at best. Prejudice and caprice mar some of the definitions. Others can only be called Johnsonian, for example: "Network: Any thing reticulated or decussated, at equal distance, with interstices between the intersections". Its etymologies are often inventive rather than accurate (Baugh and Cable 1978: 270).

It was, however, an extraordinary accomplishment, the more so when one considers that other dictionaries of similar size and content were being produced by academies. It is only natural that Johnson's dictionary was compared with the ones being produced by the Italian and French academies. His friend Garrick wrote an epigram, commenting on the fact that Johnson had accomplished what took the whole French Academy to do: And Johnson, well arm'd like a hero of yore, /Has beat forty French, and will beat forty more.

Boswell remarks that Johnson was "complacent" over a report that the Italian academy found it hard to believe that he alone had produced the dictionary (Bambas 1980: 189). A notice in Europe notes that Johnson could boast of being an academy all by himself. And it is true that he did conceive of his dictionary as performing at least part of the work of an academy, since which time the suggestion of an English academy has never seriously been put forward again. It was indeed a great achievement, especially when one considers that it was the work of one man, laboring almost alone for seven short years.

Bibliography

Johnson, Samuel. 1747. The Plan of Dictionary. In R.C. Alston (ed.) English Linguistics 1500 – 1800: A Collection of Facsimile Reprints, No. 223. Menston, England: The Scolar Press, 1970.
Johnson, Samuel. 1755. A Dictionary of the English Language: in which the words are deduced from their originals. London: F. and C. Rivington, et al.
Hawkins, Sir John. 1961. The Life of Samuel Johnson. In Wells 1973.
Bambas, Rudolph C. 1980. The English Language: Its Origin and History. Norman, OK: the University of Oklahoma Press.
Baugh, Albert C. and Cable, Thomas. 1978. A History of English Language, third edition. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice – Hall, Inc.

Работа 3. Henry Sweet

Contents:

Introduction: Henry Sweet and “The New English Grammar”…………… 3

“The New English Grammar” and traditional grammar…………………… 3

Sweet’s formal approach to grammar……………………………………… 4

Content and function words……………………………………………….… 4

Henry Sweet’s groups of the parts of speech…………………………………5

Conclusion: Sweet’s works and his contribution to the world’s linguistics…. 5

Literature……………………...………………………………………………6

Henry Sweet and “The New English Grammar”.

Heny Sweet’s “New English grammar” published in 1898 was a reaction against traditional grammar. In Sweet’s opinion, traditional grammars were wrong not only in their principles and in their methods, but in their whole approach to language, in their notion of what a language is and how it may be adequately described. As a reaction to this, he made claims for a scientific approach to language. Language should be studied to know and to understand how language works. Sweet’s desire was to make the study of language both scientific and autonomous.

“A new English grammar” was intended to supply the want of a scientific English grammar, founded on an independent critical survey of the latest results of linguistic investigation as far as they bear, directly or indirectly, on the English language. Sweet's position is original and innovative when compared to the work which had been done before him, not only in Britain but also elsewhere, he concidered the rules of grammar to have no value except as statements of facts: whatever is in general use in a language is for that very reason grammatically correct.

Henry Sweet’s work accepted differences in language practice and established different linguistic levels. Sweet distinguishes first between languages and dialects, secondly between standard, refined and vulgar speech, and finally between literary and spoken language.

“The New English Grammar” and traditional grammar.

For Sweet, traditional school grammars were unscientific because they mixed up synchronic with diachronic information, often giving predominance to diachronic forms. As a reaction, Sweet takes considerable pains to keep descriptive apart from historical grammar. Thus, in the first volume of his “New English grammar” he first deals with those aspects related to the descriptive grammar of English, leaving the second part for historical considerations. It is only in his second volume that he studies the syntactic behaviour of the different periods of English together. Nevertheless he always tries not to mix them up.

Due to the primacy of written language, traditional school grammar neglected phonology, the basic study of the sounds of speech, and sometimes confused speech with writing. So Sweet begins with the phonetic level in his article “Words, logic and grammar” (1876) and shows, among other things, the independence of the phonetic and logical systems in language. Sweet recognized the importance of the spoken language and of the study of phonetics, pointing out the role that stress and intonation have in carrying many differences in meaning.

Sweet's interest in the spoken language is reflected in his grammar in the several sections which he devotes to stress and intonation of words, word groups and sentences. Sweet placed great emphasis on the analysis of sounds used by speakers of English to communicate their thoughts. He realized that commonly used English spelling was an unacceptable means of representing the speech sounds made by speakers of English, and he consequently searched for a way to establish a system of representing speech sounds with the greatest possible fidelity to their spoken form. The key requirement for such a system was that each symbol represented one and only one sound.

Sweet’s formal approach to grammar.

No one can doubt that Sweet's approach to grammar is formal. Sweet, for example, considers parts of speech both formally and functionally. Accordig to his grammar, as regards their function in the sentence, words fall under certain classes called parts of speech, all the members of each of these classes having certain formal characteristics in common which distinguish them from the members of the other classes. Parts of speech have inflection of their own distinct from those of the other parts of speech (I grow, he grows, grown); each part of speech has special form-words associated with it (a tree, the tree; to grow, is growing, has grown); and each part of speech has a more or less definite position in the sentence with regard to other parts of speech. It is form and function but not meaning that determine the classification of a word into a particular part of speech. For example, walk in he took a walk is a noun because it takes the form-word the before it, because it can take a plural ending -s, and so on. The nouns in silk thread, gold watch are used as attribute-words very much as the adjective silken.

In his analysis of words Sweet starts by studying what he calls words and structuralists stems, and then he proceeds with the analysis of derivational suffixes and prefixes, to finish with inflections.

In his analysis of English inflections, Sweet starts with case. After making explicit that English has only two case distinctions, he concludes that the genitive inflection can generally be replaced by the preposition of, he underlines, to what narrow limits the English cases, or rather case, are confined. The verbal inflexions are hardly less limited. The only personal inflexion is the s of he goes. The only other inflexions are those which form the preterite and the two participles. These, together with the plural of nouns, are the only essential inflexions of English.

Content and function words.

The distinction between content and function words is also clearly made by Sweet. Sweet treats it from three different point of views: the semantic, the formal and the functional. Semantically, Sweet distinguishes between full-words and half-words. In sweet’s opinion, there is an intermediate class of sound-groups, which, although not capable of being isolated and forming sentences by themselves, are yet not utterly devoid of meaning. As an example he compares the three groups: (maen), (amaen) and (dhemaen). The two prefixes have an unmistakable, though vague meaning of their own, which enables to identify them at once in all other cases in which they are prefixed to nouns, and yet these two syllables would convey no meaning if pronounced alone. In the case of (amaen) and (dhemaen) Henry Sweet distinguishes two classes of words, full-words and half-words, (maen) being a full-word, (dhe) a half-word - that is, a word incapable of forming a sentence by itself, or of suggesting an independent meaning.

Functionally, the distinction is based upon the following contrast. In such a sentence as the earth is round, we have no difficulty in recognising earth and round as ultimate independent sense-units expressing the two essential elements of every thought - subject and predicate. Such words as the and is, on the other hand, though independent in form, are not independent in meaning: the and is by themselves do not convey any ideas, as earth and round do. Sweet calls such words as the and is form-words. They serve to connect subject and predicate and though They have no independent meaning, have a definite grammatical function.

Henry Sweet’s groups of the parts of speech.

And formally, Sweet distinguishes two main groups of the parts of speech in inflectional languages: declinable (capable of inflection) and indeclinable (incapable of inflection). The declinable parts of speech fall under the three main divisions, nouns, adjectives and verbs. Pronouns are a special class of nouns and adjectives, and are accordingly distinguished as noun-pronouns, such as I, they and adjective-pronouns, such as my and that in my book, that man. Numerals are another special class of noun and adjectives: three in three of us is a noun-numeral, in three men an adjective-numeral. Indeclinable words or particles comprise adverbs, prepositions, conjunctions, and interjections. The main function of adverbs, such as quickly and very, is to serve as adjunct-words to verbs and to other particles. E.g. the snow melted quickly, very quickly. Prepositions are joined to nouns to make them into adjunct-words. Conjunctions are used mainly to show the connection between sentences.

Sweet’s works and his contribution to the world’s linguistics.

The most famous of Sweet’s works are: “Words, logic and grammar” (published in 1876); “A history of English sounds from the earliest period” (1888); “A handbook of phonetics” (1877); “A short historical English grammar” (1892); “Collected papers” (1913).

Among other matters Henry Sweet touched upon in his works are: consideration a language as a system of relations where every element has no value if isolated; impossibility of transferring the categories of Latin to such a different language as English; the study of a spoken language; relations between forms and meanings; the idea of morpheme as an abstract representation of grammatical categories; word-order and many others.

Henry Sweet contributed much to the field of linguistics in general and to the description of English language. He moved towards a better understanding of the way in which language in general and English in particular work, treated the whole subject at a much higher level. We can conclude that Sweet's position is original and innovative when compared to the work which had been done before him, not only in Britain but also elsewhere. His study initiated in some way what others continued in the future, for example, American structuralist linguisticsis, usually presented as a reaction against traditional grammar.

Literature:

Henderson, R. (1982) The indispensable foundation: a selection from the writings of H. Sweet. London: Oxford University Press.
G. Leitner (1991) English traditional grammars. Amsterdam: John Benjamins.
Wrenn, C.L. (1967), "Henry Sweet", in C.L. Wrenn, Word and symbol: studies in the English language. London: Longman.
Gleason, H.A., Jr. (1965), Linguistics and English grammar. New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston.

9. Материально-техническое обеспечение дисциплины и перечень используемого программного обеспечения.

Список литературы по дисциплине имеющейся в библиотеке прилагается. Специального программного обеспечения по дисциплине нет, но широко используются материалы из Интернета. Ссылки на адреса соответствующих сайтов приведены выше.

1 Editions of this book continued to appear until 1858. Cf. R. C. Pooley, Teaching English Grammar, New York, 1957. Reminiscences of Latin paradigms of the declension of nouns and their imitations in English may be met with occasionally in English literature. Cf. the address to a mouse in Carroll's Alice's Adventures in Wonderland and the following extract from J. Galsworthy's Swan Song: "Under her breath, she declined the creaking noun who was preceding her to the dining-room: 'Smither: О Smither: Of a Smither: To a Smither: A. Smither.' Silly!" (J. Galsworthv, Swan Song, M, 1956, p. 68).

3 Poldauf, On the History of Some Problems of English Grammar before 1800, Praha, 1948, p. 47, 242.

4 In describing the results of the works of grammarians of different periods, we shall dwell on a few crucial problems, the solution of which was typical of the attitude of the grammarians towards the description of linguistic facts, such as the classification of the parts of speech, the problem of the number of cases in English and the syntactic system.

5 Wilkins. An Essay towards a Real Character and a Philosophical Language, London, 1668

6 For a more detailed analysis of the study of word groups in English grammars see: B. Burlakova, Contribution of English and American Linguists to the Theory of Phrase, M., 1971.

7 R. Lowth, A Short Introduction. to English Grammar, London, 1775, p. X.

8 See A. Baugh, A History of the English Language, New York —London, 1935, p. 341.

9 For a more detailed analysis of the study of word groups in English grammars see: B. Burlakova, Contribution of English and American Linguists to the Theory of Phrase, M., 1971.

10 O. Jespersen, Mankind, Nation and Individual from a Linguistic Point of View, London, 1946, p. II4

11 Ch. Dickens, Sketches by Boz, London, 1895, p. 225.

12 This term was also borrowed from logic where it denoted some essential or non-essential attribute or quality, etyaelogically; "added or joined to".

¹³ L. Murray, English Grammar Adapted to the Different Classes of Learners, York, 1813, p. 56.

14 This term was also borrowed from logic where it denoted some essential or non-essential attribute or quality, etymologically; "added or joined to".

15 Ch. C. Fries, The Periphrastic Future with shall and will in Modern English, PMLA, LXL, No. 4, 1925.

16 P. Roberts, Understanding English, New York, 1958* p.. 137.

— 18 —

17 A. Bain, A Higher English Grammar, London, 1896, p. II, 265 (1st ed. 1863).

18 E. g. B. Hathaway states that "...the concept of "modification" is deeply rooted in our thinking..." B. Hathaway, A Transformational Syntax, New York, 1967, p. 161.

19 See for instance R. A. Peters, A Linguistic History of English, New York, 1968, p. 193 and O. Thomas, Transformational Grammar and the Teacher of English, London, 1969, p.

20 E. g. B. Hathaway states that "...the concept of "modification" is deeply rooted in our thinking..." B. Hathaway, A Transformational Syntax, New York, 1967, p. 161.

21^s Ibid., p. 5.

22 Ibid., p. 1—2. Sweet mentions three methods of explaining the phenomena of language —by the help of (a) historical grammar, (b) comparative grammar and (c) general grammar.

23 O. Jespersen, Essentials of English Grammar, London, 1933, p. 19—20 Jespersen believes that the explanations may, according to circumstances, be phonetic or psychological or both combined or historical to a certain extent.

24^s Ibid., p. 5.

25 R. C. Poolev, op. cit.. p. 110.

26 As noted by H. A. Gleason (Linguistics and English Grammar, New York, 1965, p. 72), numerous other books continue the same tradition and are most heavily indebted to Nesfield, either directly or indirectly.

27 F. T. Wood, The Groundwork of English Grammar, London, 1957, p. 333.

- 29 -

28 F. T. Wood, The Groundwork of English Grammar, London, 1957, p. 333.

- 29 -

29 Ch. C. Fries, op. cit., p. 2.

30 Ibid., p. IX.

31 H. Whitehall, Structural Essentials of English, New York, 1956, p. VI.

32* Ibid., p. 109.

33 P. Diderichsen, The Importance of Distribution Versus Other

34 The method of substitution has been used in English grammars since the 1750’s. In D. Farro’s Universal British Grammar it is the principal method of the material, also in a well-known 20th-century grammar of

35 For a description of the most typical transformations besides those represented in our selections, see N. F. Irtenyeva, О. M. Bar-sova, N. J. Bloch, A. P. Shapkin, A Theoretical English Grammar (Syntax), M„ 1969, chapters 7—9.

36 For a description of the most typical transformations besides those represented in our selections, see N. F. Irtenyeva, О. M. Bar-sova, N. J. Bloch, A. P. Shapkin, A Theoretical English Grammar (Syntax), M„ 1969, chapters 7—9.

37 E. "Bach, An Introduction- to Transformational Grammars, New York, 1964, p. 33.

38 N. Chomsky, Cartesian Linguistics, New York, 1966, p. 99.

39 N. Chomsky, Introduction, p. XII.

40 N. Chomsky, Cartesian Linguistics, New York, 1966, p. 99.

41 J. Nist, A Structural History of English, New York, 1966, p. 389; B. Hathaway, op. cit., p. 17.

42 В.В.Виноградов «Русский язык», М.1947

43 The term was suggested by O.Jespersen to avoid adding another connotation to the word verbal. M.Bryant calls it one of Jespersen’s best contributions to terminology.

44 Ганшина М.А. и Василевская Н.М. «English Grammar», p.130, Moscow,1964.

45 Б.А.Ильиш «The Structure of Modern English». p.92 (English Tenses).

46 O. Jespersen “The philosophy of Grammar”, p.254.

47 Г.Н.Воронцова, «Очерки по грамматике английского языка» 1960г., стр. 191.

48 А.И.Смирницкий «Перфект и категория временной отнесённости». «Иностранные языки в школе». 1955г. №1,2

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