- •1. The object of lexicology. Links of lexicology with other branches of linguistics
- •Two Approaches to Language Study
- •2. Semasiology
- •Meaning as a Linguistic Notion
- •Referential or Analytical Definitions of Meaning
- •1.2 Functional or Contextual Definitions of Meaning
- •2. Types of Meaning
- •3. Aspects of Lexical Meaning
- •Word-Meaning and Motivation
- •Results of Semantic Change.
- •Polysemy
- •Polysemy and Context. Types of Context
- •Semantic classification of words
- •Antonymy. Classification of Antonyms
- •Word-formation
- •Various Types and Ways of Forming Words
- •Affixation
- •Prefixation. Classification of Prefixes
- •Productive and Non-Productive Affixes
- •Conversion
- •Word-composition
- •Classification of Compound Words
- •Lexical and Grammatical Valency
- •Types of Meaning of Word-Groups
- •Motivation in Word-Groups
- •Free Word-Groups Versus Phraseological Units Versus Words
- •Semantic Criterion
- •Syntactic Criterion
- •Types of Transference of Phraseological Units
- •Classification of Phraseological Units
- •Variants and dialects of the english language
- •Variants of English in the United Kingdom
- •Variants of English outside the British Isles
- •Some Peculiarities of British English and American English
Polysemy and Context. Types of Context
The term “context” denotes the minimal stretch of speech determining each individual meaning of the word. Contexts may be of two types: linguistic (verbal) and extra-linguistic (non-verbal).
Linguistic contexts may be subdivided into lexical and grammatical.
In lexical contexts of primary importance are the groups of lexical items combined with the polysemantic word under consideration. This can be illustrated by the results of the analysis of different lexical contexts in which a polyemantic word is used. For example, the adjective heavy used with the words load, table means “of great weight”. When combined with the words denoting natural phenomena such as rain, storm, snow, wind the adjective heavy is understood as denoting “abundant, striking, falling with force”. If used with the words industry, artillery, arms and the like, heavy has the meaning “the larger kind of smth.”
It can be easily observed that the main factor in bringing out the individual meanings of the adjective heavy is the lexical meaning of the words with which this adjective is combined. Thus, the meanings of heavy may be analyzed through its collocability with the words weight, safe, table; snow, wind; industry, artillery, etc. The meaning at the level of lexical contexts is sometimes described as meaning by collocation.
In grammatical contexts it is the grammatical (syntactic) structure of the context that serves to determine various individual meanings of a polysemantic word. The meaning of the verb to make – “to force, to induce” is found only in the grammatical context possessing the syntactic structure to make +prn.+verb (to make smb. laugh, to make smb. work). Another meaning of this verb – “to become” is observed in the context of a different syntactic structure – to make+adj.+noun (to make a good life, to make a good teacher). Such meanings are sometimes described as grammatically bound meanings.
There are cases when the meaning of a word is ultimately determined by the actual speech situation in which the word is used, i.e. by the extra-linguistic context (or context of situation). In the sentence The bill is large, the meaning of the word bill is clearly ambiguous as it has two “readings” resulting from the two meanings of the word bill. The sentence can, however, be “disambiguated”, i.e. one or the other of its two readings can be established if it is extended with … but need not be paid. This extension is, of course, possible only with one of the meanings of the word bill.
HOMONYMY. CLASSIFICATION OF HOMONYMS
Two or more words identical in sound form, spelling but different in meaning, distribution and in many cases in origin are called homonyms. The term is derived from Greek homos – “similar” and onoma – “name”, and thus expresses the sameness of name combined with the difference in meaning. Modern English is rich in homonymous words and word-forms. It is sometimes suggested that the abundance of homonyms in Modern English is to be accounted for by the monosyllabic structure of the commonly used English words.
The most widely accepted classification of homonyms is that recognizing homonyms proper, homophones and homographs.
Homonyms proper are words identical in their sound-form and spelling but different in meaning. Compare the wordsЖ
ball (n1) – a round object used in games,
ball (n2) – a gathering of people for dancing;
back (n) – part of the body,
back (adv) – away from the front.
Homophones are words of the same sound-form but of different speling and meaning. Compare the words:
piece (n) – part separated from smth.,
peace (n) – a situation in which there is no war between countries or groups.
knight (n) – in the past, a European soldier from a high social class who wore a suit of armour and rode a horse,
night (n) – the part of each 24-hour period when it is dark.
Homographs are words different in sound-form and in meaning but identical in spelling. Compare the words:
bow (1) – a weapon made from a long curved piece of wood, used for shooting arrows,
bow (2) – a forward movement of the top part of the body, especially to show respect.
lead (1) – the first position at a particular time during a race or competition,
lead (2) – a soft heavy grey metal.