5.2.2. Accentual function

This function depends on the position of primary and secondary stresses (accents) in the intonation group. Intonation highlights the most important information in the utterance which helps to distinguish new and old, topic and comment, ground and figure, theme and rheme. Normally, there are two major positions, the initial position (the first accented syllable in the intonation group) and the final one (the last accented syllable, the so-called "nucleus") which facilitate focusing attention, the second being more prominent than the first one thanks to a more varied pitch change and final lengthening. Ideally, the first one is the theme, i.e. what the utterance is about (topic, ground), while the second is the rheme, i.e. what is said about the theme (comment, figure). The basic distinction is obviously a cognitive one, expressed in the intonation form. In most cases (80%) the last accented syllable (and, therefore, the word) is most prominent in English, and this location is viewed as the basic, neutral, "unmarked" case.

'This is Mark 'Darcy.//" Mark's a top 'barrister.// You were Jour/ and I was ''eight//. You do the 'boats,/Г11 do the 'tea//.

In actual speech, especially in conversation, however, the theme/rheme positions may be reversed or the theme may disappear. Still the higher accent goes to the rheme, the lower to the theme, regardless of order (Bolinger 1998:52). In this "marked" case the rheme acquires special prominence because of its unusual position. Many authors call this special prominence contrast or emphasis. The rheme is generally said to be characterized by a falling or rising-falling pitch pattern regardless of its position in the statement; and by a rising pitch pattern in questions.

Harrington's the 'THIRD one. The 'THIRD one is Harrington's.

Have you spoken to my 'Dad?

Does it "FIT? - Yes, it 'FITS, but it isn't very 'PRETTY. - This *PINK one's'VERYpretty.- But if s a bit'BIG. -Well, this'SILK one isn't \,BIG.

Linguists claim that the focus is normally on the least predictable (from the situation) word, though some cases are still rather controversial, such as:

The 'coat's on fire. The 'door was open. Your 'uncle died.

The point of the argument is: why is it the noun and not the verb which is accented, i.e. brought into focus, when you are breaking the news? (Compare the Russian warnings: 'Поезд идет! 'Мама идет! 'Едут!)\

5.2.3. Attitudinal function

This function of intonation consists in expressing the attitude of the speaker towards what is being spoken about. It may have other names, such as expressive and emotional. The ability of intonation to express attitudes is associated with tones and pitch range features accompanied by voice quality and tempo changes.

^xJohn's come. "John's come!

David Crystal writes: "No one has yet described all the nuances of meaning which can be conveyed by the intonation system. Even if we restrict the example to a single word (Yes), and a single context (Willyou marry me?), it proves difficult to capture everything that is involved" (Crystal 1995:248). Then the author represents graphically "the nine ways of saying yes" and describes a range of possible connotations associated with the following tones: low fall, full fall, mid fall, low rise, full rise, high rise, level, fall-rise, rise-fall. Here is an example of the description and the commentary:

1. Low fall — the most neutral tone; a detached, unemotional statement of fact. (Unlikely, though it could be quite a dramatic answer, after tempestuous preliminaries.)

2. Full fall - emotionally involved; the higher the onset of the tone, the more involved the speaker; choice of emotion (surprise, excitement, irritation) depends on the speaker's facial expression. (Possible, especially if accompanied by other tones of voice, such as breathiness.)

3. Mid fall — routine, uncommitted comment; detached and unexcited. (I'm thinking about it. Wedding bells seem unlikely.) (Crystal 1995: 248).

There is a distinction between the attitude towards what the speaker is saying, and his/her emotional state. The emotional (physical and psychological) states are classified into strong and weak, positive and negative, and they are universal, i.e. shared by all people. Then there are also conventional, culture-bound social norms which put constraints on the freedom of expression, on the ways of demonstrating emotions and attitudes. This makes it difficult for a foreign learner to interpret attitudinal intonation means.