Vulgarisms

Most people regard these words as words and phrases used in low colloquial speech. There are lexical and stylistic vulgarisms. To lexical vulgarisms belong words expressing ideas considered unmentionable in civilized society. They are expressed by various euphemistic substitutes, abbreviation, omitions, or by scientific terms. Quite unmentionable are words denoting the most intimate spheres of human anatomy and physiology.

Stylistic vulgarisms are words and phrases the lexical meaning of which have nothing indecent or improper about them. This group consist of words that are considered by some scholars to be low slang (i.e smeller = nose, pay dirt = money).

Stylistic vulgarisms are mostly limited to the speech of the characters, emphasize their bad temper or lack of education. Vulgarisms are sometimes used in the author's narration for the sake of humorous effect.

Phonetic stylistic devices

Various features of the phonetic system have a potential stylistic function. Such phenomena as stress, intonation and the euphonic arrangement of utterance may serve as stylistic devices when they are used to produce a specific effect or to define emotions in the listener or reader. The brunch of stylistics concerned with the study of phonetic stylistic devices is called phonostylistics.

Stress and intonation

Are important stylistic devices in the spoken language where they are directly expressed by the speaker. In the written language they are conveyed indirectly by graphical means and by special syntactic arrangement of utterances. The graphical means include punctuation, diff types of prints that is capitalization, bold type, italic, spacing. Such marks of punctuation as dashes, dots, exclamatory and question marks may be used not only to show the logical arrangement of speech, but also to convey the intonation of the utterance and expression of emphasis.

Recent works in the field of phonostylistics have shown that variations of utterances can all be used to produce a stylistic effect. The wide area of the styl functions of phonetic phenomena is a very complex one. There is much truth in the statement that there are 50 ways of saying "yes" and 500 "no", but only one way of writing either. Unfortunately, the majority of features of speech with the stylistic function cant be adequately represented in writing.

Euphony (благозвучие)

In the broader linguistic sense euphony is a term referring to the choice and use of sounds to produce an acoustic impression best suited to enhance the general mood or emotional state, a given utterance or text arises. Euphony is generally achieved by such phonetic stylistic devices as alliteration and onomatopoeia.

In prose alliteration, onomatopoeia, rhythm and rhyme have different application and a diff styl effect than in poetry. Euphony and rhymes in prose should be avoided if they occur in the close succession.

Alliteration is the deliberate repetition of an initial consonant sound in two or more neighboring words or syllables. Generally, alliteration adds emotional coloring to the utterance. It may also suggest the subjective attitude of the writer to the subject or person spoken about.

E.g: Screwdge is depicted as secret and self-contained and solitary as an oyster. The repetition of "s" is unpleasant and may be interpreted as a means of writer's attitude to the char-r of the story.

Alliteration as a specific expressive means has long been a traditional device of english poetry. It dates back to old english poetry which was not rhymed but built on alliteration. Alliteration is common in eng proverbs, sayings, slogans, book titles, names of hotel.

E.g blind as a bat. Silver spoon = в рубашке родился

Alliteration continues to be widely used in poetry and prose and combined with repetition of vowel sounds. In this connection one might mention the theory of sound symbolism (phonosemantics) that is speech sounds have emotional significance.

E.g: "d" is regarded as a sound that produces a gloomy effect.

"l" - tender, warm feeling

"bl" - quick actions as in blab, bluster

"fl" - clumsy movement (flounder, flap)

"p" at the end of words - abruptly stoped movement (snip, slop, flap, clap).

Onomatopoeia

Is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature by things or people.

E.g: coo-coo, meaow

THere are 2 kinds of onomat: direct and indirect.

Direct is contained of words that imitate natural sounds.

Indirect is a combination of sounds that aim of which is to make the sound of the utterance an echo of its sense.

E.g: And the silken, sad, uncertain, rustling of each purple curtain. - repeating "s" produces the sound of the rustling of the curtain.

Rhyme

The repetition usually at regular intervals of the same or similar final sounds or sound combinations in words. Rhyme is a char-tic feature of poetry. Diff types of rhyme may be distinguished from the point of view of sound and structure. With regard to the similarity of sounds we can distinguish full rhyme (binding - finding), imperfect rhyme (eye rhyme) - love-move, brood-blood.

Rhyme is also divided into masculine or single rhyme which is created by the repetition of one-stressed syllable (song-long, fun-son).

Framing or double-rhyme is created by one-stressed syllable followed by one unstressed syllable (morning - scorning, daughter - water).

Dactyl is based on the repetition by one-stressed syllable followed by two unstressed (utility - feudality).

Sometimes the rhymed words are places not at the end of the line but within a line - internal rhyme. (I bring fresh showers for/ the thirsting flowers).

The functions of rhyme in poetry are very important. It means the end of the line and marks the arrangements of lines into stanzes (строфа).

Moreover, the most emphatic place in a poetic line - the end receives greater prominent.

Rhythm

Is a regular alternation of similar equal units of speech. Rhythmical arrangement may be found in prose too. It sometimes used by the author to produce the desired stylistic effect, in poetry rhythmical arrangement is a constant organic element that is a natural outcome of poetic emotions. Poetic rhythm - poetical recurrence of stressed and unstr syllables or equal poetic lines. The regular alternation of str and unstr syllables, forms and units is called the foot (размер). There are 5 basic feet and consequently meters in Eng poetry that is iambus (ямб), trochee (трахей), dactyl (дактиль), anapest (анапест), amphibrach (амфибрах).

Iambus - 1 unstressed syl + 1 stressed syl. (mistake)

Trochee - 1 str syl + 1 unstr syl (thank you)

Dactyl - 1 str syl + 2 unstr (wonderful)

Anapest - 2 unstr + 1 stressed (as you like)

Amphibrach - 1 unstr + 1 stressed + 1 unstressed (at midnight, together)

The following variations are recognised as acceptable modifiers of rhythm:

1. pyrrhic - acceptable modifier of rhythm consisting of 2 unstr syllables.

2. Spondee - a foot consisting of 2 str syllables.

3. Rhythmical inversion - the usage of an iambic foot in the trochaic foot.

Rhythm in prose is created by more or less regular recurrence of similar units of speech which in prose are parallel constructions, repetition, polysyndeton, asyndeton, inversion.