
- •Дніпропетровський національний університет залізничного транспорту імені академіка в. Лазаряна
- •Англійська мова
- •Geographical position of ukraine Basic vocabulary
- •Answer the questions
- •Higher Education in Ukraine Basic vocabulary
- •Answer the questions
- •Ukrainian Railways Basic vocabulary
- •Answer the questions
- •The geographical position of Great Britain Basic vocabulary
- •Answer the questions
- •Higher Education in Great Britain Basic vocabulary
- •Answer the questions
- •British Rails Basic vocabulary
- •Answer the questions
- •The geographical position of The United States Basic vocabulary
- •Answer the questions
- •Education in the United States Basic vocabulary
- •Answer the questions
- •Amtrack Basic Vocabulary
- •Answer the questions
- •Deutsche Bahn (German Railways)
- •Scandinavian rWs
- •Russian Railways
- •Chinese Railways
- •History of rail transport in France
- •The national railway company of Kazakhstan
- •Rail Transport in Finland
- •Madrid–Barcelona High-Speed Rail Line
- •High Speed Rail Operations in Italy
- •Загальна характеристика модальних дієслів
- •Деякі особливості модальних дієслів
- •Модальні дієслова та їх еквіваленти
- •Пасивний стан
Madrid–Barcelona High-Speed Rail Line
The Madrid–Barcelona high-speed rail line is a 621-kilometre standard gauge railway line inaugurated on 20 February 2008. Designed for speeds of 300 km/h and compatibility with neighbouring countries' rail systems, it connects the cities of Madrid and Barcelona, in Spain. Work is underway to extend the line into France to connect with the European high speed network in 2012.
In 2003 construction of the first phase of a new standard gauge line from Madrid to the French border (Madrid–Zaragoza–Lleida) was completed and on 11 October of that year commercial service began. This service also stopped at Guadalajara–Yebes and Calatayud. The service began running at only 200 km/h. On 19 May 2006, after two years of operation, speed was increased to 250 km/h when the Spanish ASFA (Spanish: Anuncio de Señales y Frenado Automático) signalling system was replaced with level 1 of the new European ETCS/ERTMS system. On 16 October 2006 the trains on this line increased their operating speed to 280 km/h.
On 18 December 2006 the AVE (Spanish: Alta Velocidad Española) started operating to Camp de Tarragona, and on 7 May 2007 the service increased its speed to the maximum allowable for the line, 300 km/h. This puts Tarragona at 30 minutes from Lleida. The extension to Barcelona was delayed various times due to technical problems; the Ministerio de Formento having originally forecast the AVE's arrival in Barcelona by the end of 2007.
The complete line was opened in 2008. Seventeen trains now run every day between the hours of 6 am and 9 pm, covering the distance between the two cities in just 2 hours 38 minutes, except for those stopping at all stations, which take 3 hours. Before the high-speed line was built, the journey between the two cities took more than six hours; and when the high speed line went only as far as Tarragona, 3 hours 45 minutes, operated with the Alvia service (120 series train), which continued on the conventional line to Barcelona, after a change of rail gauge.
It was originally forecast that, after reaching Barcelona in 2004, the line would run at 350 km/h, the maximum capable speed of the new Siemens AVE trains which have replaced the Talgo Bombardier AVE S102, after the installation of level 2 of the ETCS (European Train Control System)/ERTMS (European Rail Traffic Management System), which is yet to be installed. But on the AVE's first day of operating at 300 km/h to Tarragona the Minister of Public Works, Magdalena Álvarez, stated that the maximum commercial operating speeds of the AVE on all lines would be 300 km/h. Still, in October 2011, the speed was raised to 310 km/h on parts of the railway.
High Speed Rail Operations in Italy
Italy was a European pioneer in high-speed rail and the original home of the «Pendolino» family of tilting trains that have been widely adopted in several countries to make best use of conventional (as opposed to purpose-built high-speed) tracks.
In spite of economic fluctuations, high levels of vehicle ownership, a well-developed road system and a challenging terrain, the Italian high-speed rail network has been evolving for many years, with several lines in various stages of development.
Principal train operator under the public sector Ferrovie dello Stato (FS) umbrella is Trenitalia, which has been operator since 2000. State bodies have created the prevailing system, although with an equipment order announced in January 2008, Italy seems set to establish a European first in the operation of high-speed trains.
The overall high-speed rail project aims to liberate passenger travel from the constraints of a comprehensive but congested and relatively slow existing FS network. As with most such ventures, this has become influenced with environmental aspects such as reducing reliance upon road transport and providing a realistic alternative to domestic flights, these having proliferated under deregulation, especially along Italy's long north-south axis.
The Italian high-speed era began with the 252 km Rome-Florence «Direttissima», the first dedicated high-speed line in Europe when opened in 1978. However, with a decision to change the system from the Italian electrification standard of 3.000V DC (direct current) and go for higher speeds, this pioneering line has required heavy upgrading for 300km/h operation.
For a final 20km approach to Naples, high-speed trains were diverted away from the classic Rome-Naples route from December 2005 to an all-new high-speed line. It reduced journey times between these cities to around one hour and was the country's first to be energised at the European standard 25kV AC (alternating current) for high-speed lines. In early 2006 the western section of high-speed line between the key northern cities of Turin and Milan was opened.
The high-speed fleet are in two broad categories, non-tilting and tilting. There are several tilting variants deriving from the pioneering work of FIAT Ferroviaria. These were a response to a need to increase speeds over necessarily sinuous routes of the original network that had to contend with many lines that linked coastal settlements, plus penetrating the mountains of the Alpine system to the north and the Apennines along the country's spine.
The first generation of high-speed stock was the tilting ETR450 Pendolino, built by Fiat Ferroviaria, followed by the ETR460 single voltage EMU, the tri-voltage ETR470 for Cisalpino services to France, Switzerland and Germany and the dual-voltage (3kV DC/25kV AC) ETR480. The latter was developed with high-speed lines in mind, although its tilt capability is used to best advantage on classic lines with frequent curves, such as the coastal Genoa-Rome line.
Present Simple |
Past Simple |
Future Simple |
S + V (he, she, it + Vs) Do + S+ V ? Does +S + V? (he, she, it) S + do not (don’t)+ V S + does not (doesn’t) +V(he, she, it) |
S + V-ed (або II ф. для непр.дієсл.). Did + S + V? S + did not(didn’t) + V.
|
S + will (shall для I, we) + V Will/Shall +S + V? S + will not (won’t) + V S + shall not (shan’t) + V ‘ll - скорочення для shall, will |
Always, usually, every day, often, as a rule, in the morning, on Sundays, sometimes, seldom, rarely, once a week, three times a day, annually |
Yesterday, the day before yesterday, last year/ month / week, in 1982, an hour ago, on Monday (in the past), at 7 o’clock (in the past), the other day |
Next week/month/year, tomorrow, the day after tomorrow, tonight, in a week/ in two days/ in five minutes, one of these days |
Вживається для вираження:
1) звичайних повторюваних або постійних дій: He goes to see her every day. – Він ходить до неї щодня. She lives in Kyiv with her mother and two brothers. – Вона живе у Києві з матір’ю і двома братами.
2) загальновідомих фактів, незаперечної істини: Copper conducts electricity better than other metals. – Мідь проводить електрику краще, ніж інші метали.
3) запланованої майбутньої дії з дієсловами руху (to go, to come, to leave, to start, to arrive, etc.): I leave Kyiv tomorrow. – Завтра я виїжджаю з Києва. Our ship sails next Tuesday. – Наш пароплав відпливає наступного вівторка. |
Вживається для вираження:
1) одноразової або постійної дії в минулому: I saw you in the street yesterday. – Я бачила вас учора на вулиці. They lived in Poltava before the war. - До війни вони жили в Полтаві.
2) повторюваної дії в минулому: We were at the hospital every afternoon. – Ми бували у лікарні щоденно опівдні.
3) ряду послідовних дій у минулому: I dressed, went downstairs, had some coffee in the kitchen and went out to the garage. - Я одягнувся, зійшов униз, випив у кухні кави і пішов у гараж. |
Вживається для вираження:
1) одноразової, постійної або повторюваної дії в майбутньому: He will take English lessons twice a week. – Він буде брати уроки англійської двічі на тиждень. He will work at the factory next year. – Наступного року він працюватиме на фабриці. They will always come back. – Вони завжди повертатимуться.
2) передбачень, прогнозів: Don’t drive so fast or you’ll crash. – Не їдь так швидко, бо розіб’єшся. I’m sure, you’ll like your trip to London. – Я впевнений, що вам сподобається ваша подорож до Лондона.
Увага! У складних реченнях із підрядними часу й умови, що стосуються майбутнього, у підрядній частині вживається Present Simple: Tomorrow I shall write a letter to my sister if I have time. |
Present Continuous |
Past Continuous |
Future Continuous |
S + am (для I) is (для he,she,it)/ are (для we,you,they) + Ving Am + I + Ving? Is + he/she/it + Ving? Are + we/you/they + Ving? S + am/is/are not + Ving |
S + was/were + Ving Was + I/ he/she/it + Ving? Were + you/we/they + Ving? S + was/were not Ving
|
S + shall be/will be + Ving Shall +I/we + be Ving? Will + you/he/she/it/they + be Ving? S + shall/will not be Ving |
Now, Look!, Listen!, still, at the moment, at present, nowadays, today, tonight, these days, this day, while, always (роздратування) |
At, from 5 till 6, at 2 o’clock, the whole day, at noon, at midnight, at that moment, all day long(процес) |
At, from 5 till 6, at 2 o’clock tomorrow, the whole day tomorrow, at noon, at midnight, at that moment, all day long (процес) |
Вживається для вираження^
1) дії-процесу, що відбувається у момент мовлення: I am looking at that picture. – Я дивлюсь на ту картину.
2) незакінчених дій, що включають момент мовлення: He is writing a new novel this year. – У цьому році він пише новий роман.
3) дій, запланованих на найближче майбутнє: I am giving a party this week-end. Will you come? – Я влаштовую вечірку на цих вихідних. Ти прийдеш? |
Вживається для вираження:
1) дії, що відбувалася у певний момент у минулому: I was writing a letter at 7 o’clock yesterday. – Учора о 7 годині я писав лист.
2) дії-процесу, що тривала у той момент, коли відбулася інша , одноразова, дія: He was writing a letter when I entered the room. – Він писав лист, коли я ввійшов у кімнату.
3) двох паралельних дій у минулому: While I was writing a letter, they were looking through the newspaper. – Поки я писав лист, вони проглядали газету. |
Вживається для вираження:
1) дії, яка буде відбуватись у певний момент у майбутньому: Jason will still be working at 6 o’clock. – Джейсон все ще буде працювати о 6 годині.
2) дії, яка буде тривати у майбутньому в той час, коли відбудеться інша дія: He will be writing a letter when I come. – Він буде писати лист, коли я прийду.
3) кількох паралельних дій у майбутньому: I shall be writing a letter, while he will be looking through the newspaper. – Я буду писати лист, коли він буде проглядати газету. |
Present Perfect |
Past Perfect |
Future Perfect |
Дія, яка відбулася до певного моменту в теперішньому (або відбулася в минулому, але її результат важливий наразі) |
Дія, яка відбулася до певного моменту в минулому. |
Дія, яка відбудеться до певного моменту в майбутньому. |
S + have/has (для he, she, it)+ V3(-ed) Have/has + S + V3(-ed)? S + have/has not (haven’t/hasn’t) + V3 |
S + had + V3(-ed) Had + S + V3(-ed)? S + had not (hadn’t) + V3(-ed) |
S + shall/will have + V3(-ed) Shall/Will + S + have + V3(-ed)? S + shall/will not (shan’t/won’t) + have + V3(-ed) |
Ever, never, once, twice, three/several times, just, already, yet (in negatives and questions), lately, recently, today, this week/month, so far, since, for; how long…?; It’s the first time …; I haven’t seen you for ages. |
By 2 o’clock, by this time yesterday, by the 7th of December, after, when, before |
By 2 o’clock, by this time tomorrow, by next year, by Saturday, by the end of the year, before. Дві дії в майбутньому: Дія, що позначається Future Perfect |
Вживається для вираження:
1) повідомлень про результат дії, новин, повідомлень та запитань про життєвий досвід: I have eaten frogs twice in my life. – Я їв жаб двічі в житті. Have you ever seen this film? – Ви коли-небудь бачили цей фільм? I have just lost my key. – Я тільки що загубив мій ключ.
2) повідомлення про те, що почалося в минулому і продовжується до цих пір зі статичними дієсловами: I have known her since 1998. – Я знаю її з 1998 року. З динамічними дієсловами вживаємо Present Perfect Progressive: I have been studying English since 2010. – Я вивчаю англійську з 2010 року. |
Вживається для вираження:
1) дії, що закінчилася до визначеного моменту в минулому:
I had written a letter by 7 o’clock. – Я написав листа до 7 години.
2) дії, що передувала іншій минулій дії, вираженій дієсловом у формі Past Simple:
I had written a letter to my sister before he came. – Я написав лист моїй сестрі до того, як він прийшов. |
Вживається для вираження:
1) дії, яка буде закінчена до визначеного моменту в майбутньому:
I shall have written the letter by 7 o’clock. – Я напишу листа до 7 години.
2) майбутньої дії, що завершиться раніше іншої майбутньої дії, позначеної Present Simple:
I shall have written the letter before he comes. – Я напишу листа до того, як він прийде. |