Warming up discussion 2.4

Indicate at least three implications that the following proverb has for the individual styles of cognition

Proverb	Implications
“One man’s meat is another man’s poison”	1 2 3

A cognitive style can be defined as a preference of an individual to process information in a certain way. The style can be made evident as a rigid preference or a prevalent tendency in the way of learning (Madeline, E. 1996. Understanding Second Language Learning Difficulties Sage Publications. Oxford, R. 1994. Language Learning Strategies. Washington). Learners differ in their cognitive styles and these differences can be described in a number of ways using a variety of classifications. Cognitive styles are sometimes described as kinaesthetic, visual and auditory (Reid, J. 1987. The learning style preferences of ESL students. TESOL Quarterly. Vol. 21. P. 87-111 ). Kinaesthetic learners prefer learning by active involvement and hands-on experience. Visual learners feel most comfortable in reading tasks and relying on visual memory. Auditory learners are most effective in listening and relying on the information “ringing in the ears”. These types of style make a difference in the way the learners manage the learning input i.e. obtain the information, which is to be learned.

SAQ 2.2

Match the following learning styles with the forms of obtaining the knowledge input

Learning styles	Obtaining the input
Kinaesthetic Visual Auditory	Communicating with peers Working with book resources Obtaining trial-and-error experience

Information processing style depends much on the lateralisation of the brain function as the right brain and left brain. The difference in the functions of the left and right brain can be summarized in the following way:

Left brain	Right brain
Verbal Unemotional Classifying	Pictorial Emotional Generalizing

(Madeline, E. 1996. Understanding Second Language Learning Difficulties Sage Publications).

Learning styles of processing information are shown below:

Field-independent							Field-insensitive
	Serial					Extensive
		Convergent			Intuitive
Left brain			Thinker	Inductive			Right brain
			Deductive	Memorizer
		Factual			Divergent
	Intensive					Holistic
Field-sensitive							Field-dependent

Essentially the classification of the learning style is based on the learners' field-dependence/independence and field sensitivity/insensitivity. Learners are called field-dependent if their learning is strongly influenced by external information. Learners are called field-independent if their learning depends mainly on internal cues. Learners are field-sensitive if they thoroughly "scan" and "spotlight" the necessary information. Learners are field-insensitive if they "flood-light" the information available, surfing it by longer leaps of mind. Intensive learners prefer in-depth analysis of the problem. Extensive learners prefer to surf the problem. Factual learners are data driven. Intuitive learners are intuition-happy. Deductive learners proceed from rules. Inductive learners act from examples. Serial learners do the task step by step. Holistic learners tend to leap to the conclusion. Convergent learners focus on a single best solution. Divergent learners produce a variety of novel ideas in open-ended tasks. Thinkers rely on cognitive powers. Memorizers rely on memory storage (More on symptoms, styles and recommendations can be found in Leaver, B. 1993. Teaching the Whole Class. The AGSI Press. P. 4-16)

SAQ 2.3

Match the following symptoms, styles and recommendations for teaching

Symptoms	Styles	Recommendations
Hesitates and doubts	Visual learner	Needs concrete tasks
Fails spelling tests	Memorizing learner	II. Needs input
Rarely finishes a task	Experiential learner	III. Needs visual cues
Does not follow rules	Field-insensitive	IV. Needs skimming
Can only repeat texts	Field-dependent	V. Needs retelling
Misses details	Inductive learner	VI. Needs examples
Misses abstract info	Impulsive learner	VII. Needs rationing
Can’t analyze	Global learner	VIII. Writes creatively
Can’t retell	Reflective learner	IX. Needs time

The style of learners’ output is also important in the lesson. In quite a few cases learners make correct decisions and know the material but fail to display the knowledge. There are at least three possible cognitive styles that account for output failure. The first type is missing the goal. In this case the learners give incomplete answers and can in fact stop at any moment getting the wrong idea that they have “said enough”. The second type is missing the point. These learners are pre-occupied with the details and can combine them randomly producing their answers. The third type is lacking confidence. These learners fail to produce correct answer for the reasons of debilitating anxiety.

SAQ 2.4

Match the learner output styles and their answers in the lesson (the task was to describe the rules about the use of “Present Progressive”

Learner answers	Learner output styles
Present Progressive … describes the action that is taking place now.	A. Missing the point
Present Progressive is … with the “ing” and with “is” … with … “be”	B. Lacking confidence
It … Present … The rule … Present Progressive …	C. Missing the goal

Learning styles seem to be geography related. E.g. the Western world emphasizes logic and order, which can suggest that students in the Western culture tend to behave as if they were left-hemisphere dominant, while . The term “Western” in this context is relative as students from Eastern countries can also display the styles that are typical of the left brain. Conversely, “Eastern” style of learning depends much on the holistic gestalt and context though there is no automatic relationship between the geography and learning style. However, certain tendencies do exist (Some facts can be found in Leaver, B. 1993. Teaching the Whole Class. The AGSI Press. P. 9)

Exploratory task 2.5

Study the dominant cognitive styles in Japan, Arab world and North America. Complete the missing descriptions of the cognitive styles typical for Russia

Japanese	Arabic	American	Russian
Ambiguity-intolerant Rationed Field-sensitive Teacher-dependent	Ambiguity-tolerant Holistic Field-insensitive Teacher-dependent	Ambiguity-intolerant Rationed Field-sensitive Teacher-independent	Ambiguity – Field – … Teacher - …

(Cognitive styles are described after Oxford., R. 1996. Language learning strategies around the world. University of Hawaii)

An important issue is the congruence of the teacher and learner cognitive styles. Teachers bring to the classroom expectations of learners that are based on their own learning style preferences. If these expectations do not match up with reality, conflicts of cognitive styles can occur. These conflicts are called “style wars” (Oxford, R. 1990. Foreign Language Learning Strategies: What Every Foreign Language Teacher Should Know. N.Y: Newbury House). Field-dependent teachers preferring holistic approach to knowledge will complain about field-independent students who want to “nit-pick everything to death”. Conversely, a field-independent and field-sensitive teacher will comment on her “holistic” students as “messy”, “disorganised” and “rambling” (Leaver, B. 1993. Teaching the Whole Class. The AGSI Press. P.11-12)

Exploratory task 2.6

Look at the geometric figure on the left and say whether the figure on the right (the pentagon) is present in it. If you are able to find the “pentagon” in the left figure, within less than 3 seconds, you are most likely a “field-independent” person. If it takes you longer, you are most probably a “field-dependent personality. Compare the results with those of your peers. What learners will you prefer to teach: field-dependent or field-independent? Why?

(Williams, M. and R.Burden. 1997. Psychology for Language Teachers. CUP. P. 92-93).

Learning strategies

Warming up discussion 2.5

List the learning strategies (the ways to organise one’s learning) that you think are common for English language learning. Rank them in order of importance. The beginning has been done for you

To read the text out-loud… To read and to repeat the text silently sentence by sentence…

Learning strategies are preferred decisions about organising one’s learning. Learning strategies can be divided into two main classes: direct and indirect. Each type supports and connects with another. Let's consider the direct strategies first. Mental strategies are those used for storage of information. Cognitive strategies are those that learners use to comprehend and process the material. Compensation strategies help the learners to overcome the knowledge gaps. Indirect strategies support the direct ones. Meta-cognitive strategies help learners organise and regulate their learning. Affective strategies are concerned with learners' confidence and other emotions such as anxiety. Social strategies lead to increased interaction using the target language. The taxonomy of the learning strategies is shown below:

Direct strategies. Indirect strategies

Memory	Storing strategies Retrieving strategies	Meta-cognitive strategies	Planning one's learning Arranging one's learning Evaluating one's learning
Cognitive strategies	Analysing Reasoning Creating	Affective strategies	Lowering debilitating anxiety Calling facilitating anxiety Relaxing
Compensation strategies	Guessing Imaging Using resources	Social strategies	Asking Co-operating Empathising

(Oxford, R. 1990. Language Learning Strategies: What Every Teacher Should Know. N.Y: Newbury House. Williams, M. and R. Burden. 1997. Psychology for Language Teachers. CUP. P. 144-156).