Text 2 elements of culture

The study of culture is an important part of contemporary sociological work. The major aspects of culture include language, norms, sanctions and values.

Language is a critical element of culture that sets apart humans from other living beings. Language is the foundation of every living culture, though particular languages may differ in striking ways. Language is an abstract system of word meanings and symbols for all aspects of culture. It includes speech, written characters, numerals, symbols and gestures of nonverbal communication. People depend upon language for it describes and shapes the reality of a culture. The word symbols and the grammar of a language organize the world for us. Language is of great interest to the sociological perspective because it can shape how we see, taste, smell, feel and hear. It also influences the way we think about the people, ideas and objects around us. A culture’s most important aspects are communicated to people through language. It is for these reasons that the introduction of new languages into a society is such a sensitive issue in many parts of the world.

Norms are established standards of behavior maintained by a society. Sociologists distinguish between norms in two ways. First, norms are classified as formal or informal. Formal norms have been written down and involve strict rules for punishment of violators. In human society we often formalize norms into laws, which must be very precise in defining proper and improper behavior. By contrast, informal norms are generally understood but are not precisely recorded.

Norms are also classified by their relative importance to society. When classified in this way, they are known as mores and folkways. Mores are norms highly necessary to the welfare of a society. Thus human society has strong mores against murder, treason and child abuse. Each society demands obedience to its mores; their violation can lead to severe penalties.

Folkways are norms governing everyday behavior whose violation raises comparatively little concern. Folkways very often are not shared in all societies.

What happens when people violate a widely shared and understood norm? In this case they will receive sanctions. Sanctions are penalties and rewards for conduct concerning a social norm. The relationship between norms and sanctions in a culture reflects that culture’s values and priorities. Values are those collective conceptions of what is considered good, desirable and proper or bad, undesirable and improper in a culture. They indicate what people in a given culture prefer as well as what they find important and morally right (or wrong). Values may be specific, such as honoring one’s parents, or they may be more general, such as health, love and democracy.

Values influence people’s behavior and serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others. There is a direct relationship between the values, norms and sanctions of a culture. For example, if a culture views private property as a basic value, it will probably have laws against theft and vandalism. The values of a culture may change but most remain relatively stable during any person’s lifetime.

1. Reread the text and answer the following questions:

1) Why is it stated that the major aspects of culture include language, norms, sanctions and values?

2) How can you account for the fact that language is a critical element of culture?

3) Do you agree that people depend upon language in their life? State your reason.

4) Why is language of great interest to the sociological perspective?

5) What are the other aspects of a culture besides language?

6) How do sociologists distinguish between norms?

7) What examples of formal and informal norms can you give?

8) Can you distinguish between mores and folkways?

9) What do sanctions indicate?

10) How can you prove that values influence people’s behavior?

2. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following:

Отделять … от; значительно отличаться; очерчивать (придавать или принимать форму, вид); неязыковое общение; представлять большой интерес для; передаваться через язык; именно по этим причинам; остро ощущаемая проблема; неправильное поведение; принятые нормы; благосостояние общества; суровое наказание; чтить своих родителей; критерий оценки; прямая взаимосвязь

3. Supply the missing words or word combinations choosing among those given below.

stable	folkways	language	shapes
through language	values	violation

(1) … is a critical element of culture that sets apart humans from other living beings. People depend upon language, for it describes and (2)… our reality. A culture’s most important aspects are communicated to people (3) … . (4) … of laws can lead to severe penalties.

(5) … govern how far we should stand while conversing with one another. (6) … serve as criteria for evaluating the actions of others. Most values remain relatively (7) … during any one person’s life.

4. Agree or disagree to the following statements; add some more information

1) Language depends on people living in a society.

2) The introduction of a new language into a society is a sensitive issue for any country in the world.

3) Norms define undesirable behaviour and are normally recorded.

4) Mores and folkways reflect a culture’s values and priorities.

5) The values of a culture remain stable during one’s lifetime.

5. Define the following key terms and memorize the definitions:

language norms mores

folkways sanctions values

Text 3 CULTURAL UNIVERSALS AND DIVERSITY OF CULTURES

All cultures have features that result from basic needs, which are shared by all people. Every culture has methods of obtaining food and shelter. There is also a way to keep order: a system of police, courts, and prisons. Every culture has ways to protect itself against invaders. It also has family relationships, religious beliefs. All societies have forms of artistic expression, such as painting, music, etc. In addition, each culture has some type of scientific knowledge.

People do not realize how greatly culture influences their behavior until they come across other ways of doing things. People feel most comfortable within their own culture, and they prefer the company of others who share their culture. When people have to deal with persons of anoth­er culture, even small differences in behavior may make them uneasy.

Cultures differ in their details from one part of the world to another. All societies have particular ways of encouraging what they view as appropriate behavior while discouraging and punishing what they consider to be improper conduct. Linguists suggest that language is culturally determined and it leads to different interpretations of reality and certain phenomena. Languages differ in the number of colors that are recognized. There are 11 basic terms in English. But the Russian and Hungarian languages have 12 color terms. The language barrier extends even to nonverbal communication. Many people in the United States interpreted Soviet leader Leonid Brezhnev’s hands-clasped gesture following a 1973 White House meeting with President Nixon as meaning “I’ve won” or “I’m the champ”. While that is indeed the American meaning of this gesture, Russians use it as a symbol of friendship.

Despite their differences, all societies have attempted to meet basic human needs by developing aspects of shared, learned behavior known as cultural universals. Cultural universals are general practices found in every culture. Anthropologists compiled a list of such universals that includes the following: athletic sports, attempts to influence weather, bodily adornment, calendar, cooking, courtship, dancing, dream interpretation, family, folklore, food habits, funeral ceremonies, games, gift giving, language, laws, medicine, music, myths, numerals, personal names, property rights, religion, sexual restrictions, tool making.

Many cultural universals are, in fact, adaptations to meet essential human needs, such as people’s need for food, shelter and clothing. Yet, the manner in which they are expressed will vary from culture to culture.

1. Scan the text again to answer the following questions:

1. What common features do all cultures have?

2. What different features do all cultures have?

3. When do people feel most comfortable?

4. When do people feel uneasy?

5. What do cultural universals have in common? What differs them?

2. Find in the text the English equivalents of the following:

несмотря на различия; удовлетворить основные человеческие потребности в; cоставить список; рассматривать; влиять на наше поведение; толкование (объяснение) реальности; языковой барьер; неправильное поведение.

3. a) Find in the text the words, which have the similar meanings as the following words.

applied, sense, developed, main, getting, to defend, to understand, to meet, uncomfortable, to keep, stable, think, happen, branch, pattern, component, concept, ability

b) Find in the texts the words, which have the opposite meanings to the following words.

wide, complex, big, easy, to disappear, old, different, to preserve, material, common, proper, remain, penalty, violation, contemporary

4. Agree or disagree with the following statements; add some more information.

1) All cultures are the same.

2) People feel uneasy with persons of anoth­er culture.

3) People do not realize the influence of culture on their behaviour.

4) Language may lead to different interpretations of reality.

5) Cultural universals have been developed to meet essential human needs.

6) Shared, learned behaviour is culturally determined.