Methods and techniques od sociological research

In order to test the hypothesis and determine if it is supported or refuted, researchers need to collect information. To guide them in collecting and analyzing data, they employ one of the research methods. Research methods are strategies or techniques to conduct a systematic research. The most wide-spread method that provides almost 90% of empiric data is survey research. Survey is a study which provides sociologists with information concerning how people think and act. The strengths of surveys are seen in the following: survey research is useful in describing the characteristics of a large population without having to interview each person in that population. It is useful in analyzing social change or documenting the existence of a social problem. It is cheap to organize and makes a maximum use of technical devices to process the obtained data. A weakness of survey research is that quality of obtained data may be affected by a respondent’s personality – his education, culture, memory, attitudes to the study problem, on the one hand, and the researcher’s personality – his professional level, communicative skills etc., on the other hand.

Survey data are collected by using such methods as questionnaire, interviewing, sociometric survey and expert survey.

Questionnaire is a popular method of data collection with a questionnaire form as a printed research instrument containing a series of items for respondents to answer.

However, several problems can arise from respondents concealing, misreporting, or misunderstanding the questions when using questionnaire. Besides, the questionnaire should be attractive to look at, brief, easy to understand, reasonably quick to complete. These features encourage respondents to complete it and so provide you with the information you need.

Interviewing is a data-collection encounter in which an interviewer asks the respondent questions and records the answers. It is a personal contact between a respondent and an interviewer that differentiates interviewing from questionnaire.

A short-cut method to gather data fast is to interview groups rather than individuals. In applying this method, a problem of representativeness may arise, since any chosen group is unlikely to represent a true cross-section of the local population, although attempts to include individuals of different socio-economic status should be made. The knowledge and experience of several individuals may serve as checks on information given by each others. There is nothing specialized about a group interview as compared to a person interview.

Each of these forms has its own advantages. An interview can obtain a high response rate because people find it more difficult to turn down a personal request for an interview than to throw away a written questionnaire. On the other hand, questionnaires have the advantage of being cheaper. Also, since the questions are written, the researcher knows that there is some guarantee of consistency, whereas five interviewers can ask the same question in five different ways.

Sociometric survey is a survey form used in small social groups to discover interpersonal relations between group members by fixing preferences, likes, dislikes etc.

Expert survey is a survey form conducted to have expertise on the issue. Its distinction is that its respondents are people who are competent in a definite area of knowledge or practice. That’s why expert survey can’t provide any anonymity.

In social research, observation can also be used to collect data. Observation is a method of direct recording of social events and conditions under which they take place. Its advantages are as follows: it allows to record events and elements of human behaviour at the moment they take place; the researcher doesn’t depend on the object of research, he can collect facts, no matter whether or not individuals or groups are willing to respond or able to answer.

Due to its character, observation can be standardized when a researcher focuses his attention on pre-arranged phenomena most significant for characterizing the situation under study, and non-standardized when such elements are not arranged beforehand. Due to the observer’s position with regard to the object of research, two forms of observation are differentiated: participant and non-participant. Observation is participant when a researcher is inside the study object. In non-participant observation, the observer remains separate from his study population’s activities.

Unlike other methods experiment is seldom used in sociology. An experiment is an artificially created situation that allows the researcher either to confirm or to refute the hypothesis under study.

One of the problems that may arise from experiments is reactivity, the tendency of people to change their behaviour in response to the presence of the researcher or to the fact that they know they are being studied.

Experiments have their strengths and their weaknesses. The major strength of the controlled experiment is the researcher’s control over the environment and the ability to isolate the experimental variable. Perhaps, the greatest limitation of experiments is that they are artificial.

It is important to realize that research designs need not to be viewed as mutually exclusive. Two or more methods used together may be especially informative.

Sociological studies do not always confirm the original hypothesis. In many instances, a hypothesis is refuted, and researchers have to reformulate their conclusions, to reexamine their methodology and make changes in the research design.

2. Scan the text again to answer the following questions:

1) What research techniques do sociologists regularly use to generate data?

2) What methods can sociologists use to study social phenomena indirectly?

3) Why can’t expert survey provide any anonymity?

4) What is considered to be the classic method of conducting an experiment?

5) What problems does the sociologist face in conducting participant observation research?

6) What are the advantages of an interview and a questionnaire?

7) What basic techniques of unobtrusive measurement do you know?

8) What do researchers have to do if their hypothesis is refuted?

9) Are different research designs viewed as mutually exclusive?

3. Find in the text the corresponding English expressions.

cобрать и проанализировать данные; искусственно созданная ситуация; отклонить личную просьбу; взаимно исключающие; использование технических средств; независимо от того; относительно чего-либо; изучаемая ситуация.

4. Do you think the following statements are true of false? Discuss your answers in pairs.

1) Researchers collect information to generate ideas for future studies.

2) The most wide-spread research method is survey.

3) A weakness of survey is that it requires interviewing each person in a population.

4) Survey research includes 4 methods.

5) Sociometric survey is used in small groups to have expertise on the issue.

6) The questionnaire should be attractive, easy to complete, quick to understand.

7) Questionnaire is a personal contact between a researcher and a respondent.

8) To gather information fast it is useful to interview groups rather than individuals.

9) Interviewing has no disadvantages as compared to the questionnaire.

10) Observation allows to collect facts no matter whether or not participants are willing or able to respond.

11) The quality of obtained data may be affected by the tendency of people to change their behaviour in response to the fact that they know they are being studied.

12) Reactivity of participants involved in an experiment is its greatest limitation.

13) The more research methods are applied, the more informative sociological study is.

5. Complete the sentences according to the text.

1) Questionnaire is a printed research instrument …

2) There is nothing specialized about a group interview as compared …

3) People find it more difficult to turn down personal request for an interview than …

4) There is some guarantee of consistency in questionnaires since …

5) Expert survey can’t provide …

6) In expert survey respondents are people …

7) Observations allow to record events and elements of human behaviour …

8) Observation is standardized when a researcher focuses his attention …

9) Observation is participant when a researcher …

10) It is important to realize that research designs …

6. Define the following key-terms:

survey, questionnaire, interviewing, sociometric survey, expert survey, observation, non-standardized observation, standardized observation, participant observation, non-participant observation, experiment.

developing vocabulary

1. Match the words with the dictionary definitions that follow.

1. anonymity 2. beforehand 3. bulletin 4. consequent 5. consistency 6. a cross-section 7. empiric 8. an encounter 9. expertise 10. to generate 11. a guess 12. a questionnaire 13. to refute 14. a respondent 15. short-cut 16. variable

a) an occasion when you meet someone, especially when it is not planned or expected b) a letter or printed statement that a group or organization produces to tell people its news c) a written set of questions about a particular subject given to a large number of people, in order to collect information d) something that may be different in different situations e) the state of not showing who is involved in something f) someone who answers questions g) the quality of always being the same or behaving in an expected way h) special skills or knowledge in a particular subject, that you learn by experience or training i) before something else happens or is done j) based on scientific testing or practical experience, not on ideas k) a quicker way of doing something m) happening as a result of a particular event or situation n) to prove that a statement or idea is not correct or not fair o) a group of people or things that is typical of a much larger group p) an answer or judgment about something without knowing all the facts, so that you are not sure whether you are correct:

2. From the right-hand column find the words opposite to the words in the left-hand column.

1. to generate 2. variable 3. to conceal 4. to encounter 5. to refute 6. artificial 7. to terminate 8. to differ 9. particular 10. consequent 11. observant 12. to refute 13. to employ 14. change 15. weakness 16. to encourage 17. to include 18. guarantee 19. to allow 20. separate 21. limitation 22. mutual

a. to confirm b. natural c. to avoid d. constant e. to begin f. to destroy g. to show h. imaginary i. linked j. to discourage k. to coincide l. constancy m. disparate n. original o. strength p. ignorance q. to dismiss r. abundancy s. to exclude t. to confirm u. to forbid v. general

3. Group the following words into eight synonymous groups:

conceal generate topic create unnatural study unsteady disapprove problem unstable refute observation reveal employ terminate make attention variable disguise use produce end issue artificial point deny complete changeable unreal hide

4. Replace the words in italics by those from your active vocabulary.

1) New technology is being used to almost every industrial process.

2) Customs officers found a kilogram of cocaine that Smith had hidden inside his suitcase.

3) He has knowledge in the biotechnology industry.

4) He supposed she was about 30.

5) It will take four to six weeks to treat your loan application.

6) Several scientists have attempted to disapprove Moore’s theories.

7) The company had the right to end his employment at any time.

5. Complete the sentences with the appropriate words from the list:

generated; short-cuts; consistency; implies; observation; variables; beforehand

1) lmost all the food was prepared… .

2) here has been a lack of … in carrying out democratic reforms.

3) he computer industry has … hundreds of new jobs in the area.

4) ree trade … shared values.

5) The beached whale was under … throughout the night.

6) There aren’t really any … to learning English.

7) There are too many … to predict who will win.

6. Match the two halves of the sentences.

1) Sociology can’t exist without …

2) Like the typical citizen on the street …

3) Through the study of a social issue …

4) The first step in a sociological research is …

5). By conducting a review of the literature …

6) The hypothesis should be confirmed, refuted or revised …

7) Scientific studies do not aim …

8) Survey is useful in …

9) A weakness of survey research is that …

10) The correct design of the questionnaire encourages respondents …

11) In interviewing any chosen group is unlikely …

12) The advantage of observation research is that …

13) Observation is non-standardized when …

14) The disadvantage of an experiment is the tendency of people …

15) An experiment allows the researcher …

16) In non-participant observation …

17) Sometimes the original hypothesis is refuted and researchers have to … .

a) the observer remains separate from his study population’s activities.

b) quality of obtained data may be affected by both a respondent’s and a researcher’s personality.

c) the sociologist is interested in the central questions of our time.

d) to answer all the questions that can be raised about a particular object.

e) significant phenomena are not arranged beforehand.

f) to change their behaviour in response to the presence of the researcher.

7. to represent a true cross-section of the local population.

h) make changes in their research design.

i) the researcher doesn’t depend on the object of research.

j) to complete it and so provide you with the information you need.

k) analyzing social change or documenting the existence of a social problem.

l) either to confirm or to refute the hypothesis under study.

m) depending on the outcome of the study.

n) the researchers generate meaningful findings of interest to sociologists.

o) empiric information about social processes and events that take place in the society.

p) researchers may avoid making unnecessary mistakes.

q) to state as clearly as possible what you hope to investigate.

Discovering Language

Word-building

1. a) Translate the following sentences from the text. What meaning do the prefixes in the italicized words have?

1) By conducting a review of the literature, researchers may avoid making unnecessary mistakes.

2) Problems can arise from misreporting or misunderstanding the questions.

3) In many instances, researchers have to reformulate their conclusions and to reexamine their methodology.

b) Can you find any other words with these prefixes in the text?

2. Study the meaning of the following prefixes.

un- is the most frequent negative prefix in English and is used in many common words. It can be added to adjectives, adverbs and verbs to make new negative and opposite words. The words here have the negative or opposite of the meaning of the main part of the word: unnatural, unreal, unsteady, unstable.

mis- 1) bad or badly;

2) wrong or wrongly;

3) the opposite or the lack of something.

re- 1) back to a former state;

2) again;

3) again in a new and better way.

3. Identify the words with prefixes and translate them into Russian.

misread, misrule, misplace, misprint, mispronounce, mistake, miserable, mission, intermediate, interact, interview, intervention, interrelate, internal, interpret, interrupt, recall, recent, ready, recreation, reduce, reform, relay, replacement, unemployment, unequal, unelected, unfortunate, uneducated, uniform.

4. Derive the appropriate negative word from those in brackets:

1) Steber’s age, widely (reported) throughout her career, was 76.

2) Our ice-cream contains no (natural) colours or flavours.

3) These workers are (representative) of the general population.

4) The instructions are (necessarily) complicated.

5) Some of my job duties are still (defined).

6) By necessity, the armed forces are (liberal) and (democratic).

7) Have you (set) the alarm clock?

8) The plane was (directed) to Cleveland.

9) The attitudes of this generation are a(n) (action) against the selfish values of the 1980s.

10) We were shocked by their apparent (concern) for their own safety.

11) Eating all that junk food is really (healthy).

12) Employees’ opinions were often treated as (important).

13) Smoking has become very (fashionable).

5. Fill in the missing prepositions where it is necessary.

1) An ASR differs … a fundamental research by its final result.

2) Sociologists must be aware … the limitations of answers.

3) Respondents do not always have an easy access … the factual information. 4) An ASR may be carries out … request of customers.

5) Scientific method ensures maximum objectivity and consistency … researching a problem.

6) Depending … the outcome of the study a hypothesis should be tested and confirmed, refuted or revised.

7) When using questionnaire problems can arise … respondents concealing, misreporting or misunderstanding the questions.

8) Survey provides sociologists … information concerning human behaviour.

9) Interviewers can ask the same question … different ways.

10) Expert survey is conducted in order to obtain expertise … the issue.

11) In expert survey respondents are people competent … a definite area of knowledge or practice.

12) Researchers observe and record social events and conditions … which they take place.

6. a) Study the difference in meaning:

Affect is the usual verb and effect is the usual noun:

How do you think the changes will affect (v) you? (not affect on/to/in you)

What effect (n) do you think the changes will have on you?

The verb effect is fairly formal and is only used in particular meanings, for example, you might effect changes or a plan of action (make them happen). It does not mean the same as affect.

b) Match the following expressions with the word ‘effect’ with the correct definition:

1) put/bring something into effect 2) go/come into effect 3) take effect 4) be in effect 5) in effect 6) to this/that/the effect 7) with immediate effect 8) for effect

a) formal: beginning immediately b) to start officially c) must be obeyed or is being used d) to make a plan or idea happen e) in order to make people notice f) the general meaning rather than exact words g) to start to produce results h) different from the way that it seems to be

c) Complete the following sentences with the suitable expression from the previous exercise:

1)… we are earning less than last year because of inflation.

2) It will be a few minutes before the drugs start to … .

3) Both armies were offered to cease all attacks … .

4) The letter said something … that her job was no longer safe.

5) The council will need more money to … the regulations … .

6) The benefits listed are those … as of December 16.

7) Danger-field rolled his eyes … as he told the joke. 8. The treaty … in May 1997.

grammar review

Conditional Sentences

1. The Sales Manager of the company is always very optimistic and expresses the conditions below as if they were all real possibilities. Follow this example:

Condition: I make Harris a good offer.

Result: He gives us the contract.

If I make Harris a good offer he will give us the contract.

1) We get the contract. It gives us money to spend on advertising.

2) We spend the money on capital investment. It provides strength against inflation.

3) We beat our competitors now. Our figures rocket next year.

4) We increase spending on advertising. We increase sales.

5) We increase sales. We make a profit.

6) We reduce costs. We are in stronger position.

7) We introduce an up-to-date product. We become more competitive.

8) We prolong the contract. We have profit in hand.

9) We delay. We are too late.

2. The Finance Manager of the company is on the contrary a very cautious person and expresses the conditions with some doubt. Now follow this example:

Condition: We get the contract.

Result: We have difficulties in fulfilling it.

If we got the contract we would have difficulties in fulfilling it.

1) We spend the money on advertising. We lose it.

2) We don’t increase our market share now. We go into a decline.

3) We increase our market share now. We still need to invest.

4) Our figures rocket next year. I am able to retire.

5) Our sales don’t increase. We are in serious financial difficulties.

60 We delay. We don’t get the contract.

7) We get a new manager. He opens new subsidiaries.

8) We increase our spending. We are in some difficulties.

9) We increase the order. They reduce the price.

10) The manager is in. He can clear up all the questions.

3. Complete the sentences using the required form of the verbs in brackets.

1) If I (get) an order there, it (open up) a new market for us.

2) If Newtech (not give) us the letter of guarantee, it (be) harder to do business with them.

3) If the goods (load) quickly, we (receive) them by now.

4) He (leave) Moscow yesterday if he (get) the necessary documents.

5) If you (can extend) the guarantee period, we (place) an order with you.

6) If you (increase) the numbers of trucks bought from us, we (reduce) the price by 5 per cent.

7) We (send) you our contract, if you (agree) to these terms and conditions.

80 If your offer (receive) last week, we (accept) it.

9) If judgment (not give) according to the rules, we never know what its legal consequences (be).

10) If I (know) it would cause so much trouble, I (not raise) the issue.

speaking

1.  A major new piece of research on Poverty and Social Exclusion in Britain produced some headline press coverage recently. Interviews with a nationally representative sample of adults were used in the research to draw up a long checklist of items and activities that a majority of respondents thought everybody should be ‘able to afford and which they should not have to do without’. A second survey was then conducted to find out just how many people lacked two or more of these ‘necessities of life’.

Table 1 includes some of the items and activities which more than 50% of people in the national survey thought were necessities today.

1. Have a look at the ‘necessities’ mentioned in Table 1.

Table 1. Perception of adult necessities and how many people lack them

(all figures show % of adult population)

Adult necessities	Survey items considered necessary	Survey items considered not necessary	Don’t have/Don’t want	Don’t have/ Can’t afford
Damp-free home	93	6	3	6
Visiting friends or family in hospital	92	7	8	3
Fresh fruit and vegetables daily	86	13	7	4
Warm, waterproof coat	85	14	2	4
Replace or repair broken electrical goods	85	14	6	12
Money to keep home in a decent state of decoration	82	17	2	14
Meat, fish or vegetarian equivalent every other day	79	19	4	3
Insurance of contents of dwelling	79	20	5	8
Hobby or leisure activity	78	20	12	7
Appropriate clothes for job interviews	69	28	13	4
Regular savings (of 10 pounds per month) for rainy days or retirement	66	32	7	5
Two pairs of all-weather shoes	64	34	4	5
Friends or family round for a meal	64	34	10	6
A small amount of money to spend on self weekly, not on family	59	39	3	13
Roast joint or vegetarian equivalent once a week	56	41	11	3
Presents for friends or family once a year	56	42	1	3
A holiday away from home once a year, not with relatives	55	43	14	18
Replace worn-out furniture	54	43	6	12
An outfit for social occasions	51	46	4	4

b) Do you agree with all of them? Discuss why these are necessary in order to ‘fit in’ with the rest of society. What other things would you add to this list?

writing

Design a piece of research that would investigate items necessary for living in our society. Create your list of ‘necessities of life’.

TAPESCRIPTS

Unit 1

LISTENING

Reporter: Most of us, in this age of mass tourism and travel, would probably be shocked to hear someone talking like this.

Woman: I’ve never left England and I don’t want to. I mean, once you cross the Channel you meet a lot of disgusting foreigners, don’t you. Disgusting habits! Shocking food! They eat rats and snakes and things like that, you know. I’ve heard that most foreigners hardly ever wash.

Reporter: Such ignorance and prejudice is very shocking, but many of us have very strange ideas, even today. This Dutch girl, who now speaks English with hardly any accent at all, had a very amusing experience when she first came. Only, she was not very amused by it and who can blame her?

Girl: My first job was an “au pair” girl with an English family. When they met me, they could hardly believe I was Dutch. “Where are your wooden shoes?” they asked me.

Reporter: I asked one man what he thought Americans were alike.

Man: All Americans are the same. They all drive huge cars and talk fast. When they visit a country they never really see it. They hardly see anything at all except through a camera!

Reporter: I asked the man whether hr knew any Americans personally.

Man: No, I’ve never known any Americans personally, but I’ve seen lots of them!

Reporter: And they were all the same?

Man: That’s right! All the same.

Reporter: But tell me, how do you know you haven’t met and seen Americans who you’ve never noticed, simply because they didn’t look like your idea of a typical American?

Man: Well, uh …

Reporter: I mean, how do you know some Americans don’t look just like me?

Man: Like you? Impossible.

Reporter: Is it? As it happens, I am American. I was born in New York but I’ve lost my accent.

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