Including, even

1. a) All European countries, including Britain, have signed the treaty.

b) Study the first ten chapters, espe­cially chapter 6.

I noticed her eyes in particular, because they were such an unusual colour.

2. He has read everything that Dickens wrote - even the travel books.

Nobody came to see him - not even his brother.

1. a) The word including is used to focus on particular elements which are included among a larger number.

2. A more emphatic sense of inclusion can be given using especially, par­ticularly, in particular.

2. Even can be used in an emphatic way of expressing the idea “without any ex­ception". Even often implies an element

of surprise, indicating a contrast with _ what we would normally expect.

• Here are more linking devices to add a fact that parallels what you have said. Translate the following sentences into Russian.

1. The only reason he used a rental car company more than once was that there weren’t enough to avoid repetition. Similarly, he never used the same passport twice, nor the same credit cards.

2. The job has given me great pleasure and has taken me to places I would not otherwise have visited. Likewise I have made marvellous friends and acquaintances.

3. Working women, especially if they have children, may not have time for community activities. Likewise working men.

4. In that situation, he would lie. Equally in my situation I would want to be­lieve he was lying.

5. What will the 19.000 Syrian troops do? And equally, what will the 10,000 French troops do?

1. 1. 2. Exclusion

The idea of exclusion or exception can be expressed through the prepositional phrases (in the table below). These expressions can also be placed at the begin­ning of the sentence (except but).

apart from except (for)

All the rooms were large with the exception of the kitchen.

but (for) excluding

1. All the American states except (for) New Hampshire had a Re­publican majority.

Apart from going jogging occasion­ally, I don’t get much exercise

1. Apart from and except (for) are the prepo­sitions most commonly used to refer to exclusion. However, there is some dif­ference: except (for) is used to show that a person or a thing is totally op­posed to the whole unit by certain fea­tures; apart from shows that the object (though different) belongs to this unit.

2. It's a good film except for the fact that the ending is weak. Apart from the fact that you’d like to live in Tahiti, why have you ap­plied for this job?

The flat is nice except that there's no balcony.

2. By adding the fact that these two ex- pressions can also be used as conjunc­tions. Except that can be used in the same way.

3. Restriction

1. a) There was only one bedroom in 1. a) The word most commonly used to the flat (= no more than one). express the idea of restriction or limit a-

3. She did almost everything in the house except clean the ceilings. They haven't done anything except watch TV.

2. a) Nobody but the President has the power to do it.

I'll do anything but that.

Everyone but Frank left for home.

2. You do nothing but criticise me.

3. But for the fact that you had tele­phoned would never have known.

We would all have got lost but for his sense of direction.

2. During our trip, we found the museum a bit dull but we enjoyed everything else.

We could hear the river but other­wise it was very quiet.

Of its recommendations, only one has been realized. Otherwise, lit­tle has happened.

2. Excluding Mr Jackson, every­body

was at the meeting. All the European countries, excluding Britain, have signed the treaty.

3. In certain cases (especially after do + anything/everything/nothing), apart from and except can be followed immedi­ately by the infinitive without to.

2. a) But is used especially after certain quantifiers: no, none, any, every, all (and compounds of these words)

2. But can be followed by the infinitive with­out to in the same way as apart from and ex­cept

3. But for and the conjunction but for the fact that are used with the conditional mean­ing: “If this hadn’t happened”.

2. Else and otherwise can be used to mean “apart from that”, referring to something previously mentioned. Else follows the word it refers to.

’’Otherwise” = "except for this" or "apart from this"

2. The word excluding is used to focus on particular elements which are excluded from a larger number. It is the opposite of includ­ing.

Only Roosevelt has been President for four terms (= no one except him)

We only took some sandwiches and a bottle of water.

b) Only Livingstone survived (= he and nobody else).

Even Livingstone survived (= he and everybody else).

2. You’re the only one who liked it. She’s an only child.

2. a) There are just five minutes left before the final whistle.

b) I merely mentioned her name and he exploded in anger.

We did almost nothing. We simply lay on the beach all day.

2. I'm afraid that's all that I know.

All you need is love.

2. Numbers were limited to five hun­dred for the opening ceremony.

Cars were restricted to using only one lane because of the crash.

2. We didn't take anything to eat ex­cept for some sandwiches.