If or when?

1. I become President.

2. . it gets dark.

3. . the film finishes.

4. she passes her exam.

5. . it doesn’t rain tomorrow.

6. . I wake up tomorrow.

7. you change your mind.

8. . his parents die.

9. the bus stops.

Exercise 2. IF vs. IN CASE. Use the correct linking word.

1. I’m taking my umbrella with me it rains.

2. I’ll open the umbrella it rains.

3. I’ve got the key we want to go inside.

4. People phone the fire brigade their houses catch fire.

5. People insure their houses they catch fire.

6. We have a burglar alarm somebody tries to break in.

7. The burglar alarm will go off somebody tries to break in.

8. I’ll let you know I need help.

9. I’ll take the mobile phone I need to phone you.

10. 10.1 ran away down the hill she tried to follow...

Exercise 3. In the following statements explain the difference between if you ask me, if I may say so, if you don’t mind my saying so, if you see what I mean, if I'm not mistaken.

1. He looks a bit weird if you ask me.

2. Utter nonsense, if I may say so.

3. This is an irrelevant and, if I may say so. a rather naughty remark.

4. You're acting a little strange, if you don't mind my saying so.

5. It isn't my fault, not really. If you see what I mean.

6. They seemed almost like mother and daughter, but a mother and daughter who had switched roles, if you see what I mean.

7. And you're Mr Allan Kelling, the owner of this property, if Fm not mis­taken.

8. If I'm not mistaken, one of the twins was named after me.

Exercise 4. Specify the difference between suppose (that)/ supposing (that) and otherwise/ if not/ if so. Choose the appropriate option in the sentences below.

7. Are you pressed for time, Mr Bayliss? Suppose/ If not I suggest we have lunch before going to the house.

8. Even supposing that/ if so people can agree on such choices, the result will be a rigid set of rules.

9. They must decide if such a plan can be implemented and if so/ if not when.

Exercise 5 Translate the following sentences into English.

1. А что если ему дадут право опеки над ребенком?

2. Это его сводная сестра, если я не ошибаюсь.

3. Мы никогда больше не увидимся, если я, конечно, не поеду в Австралию.

4. Он получил хорошие результаты, и это при том, что ему никто не помогал.

5. Моя мама поверит мне только при условии, что я скажу ей то, что она хочет услышать.

6. В случае его ухода (отставки) нам трудно будет найти такого специали­ста.

7. Вы заняты сегодня? Если нет, давайте пообедаем перед отъездом.

8. Это совершенно безопасно. В противном случае, я не стал бы этого делать.

9. Учитывая тот факт, что у нас нет никаких доказательств, мы не можем считать его виновным.

10. Мы встретитесь с мистером Картером при условии, что у вас с ним назначена встреча.

1.5. Cause, effect

English, like any other language, has several ways of indicating the link between cause and effect, in other words of relating someone or something (seen as the cause or the reason) to an event (seen as the effect, the result or the consequence). This chapter examines the most important ways in which this is done, so there is no cause for concern! It also considers how to express the purpose of an action and how to describe the action of causing something to be done (using causative structures).

Use of verbs

1. The bad weather caused all sorts of problems.

The closure of the factory resulted in the loss of many jobs.

1. Problems were caused by the snow. The strike was brought about by bad management. Bad management brought the strike about.

2. The loss of jobs resulted from the closure of the factory.

3. The oil crisis gave rise to a period of depression.

The introduction of computers has led to extensive industrial reorganisation 3. This song makes me feel very happy. The journey made him tired.

1. To cause is a most widely used verb. In more formal English the verbs give rise to, bring about, lead to, re­sult in are also used.

1. To Cause and to bring about can be used in passive structures to focus on the effect.

2. We can also focus on the effect by using the verb to result from.

3. To talk about negative after-effects give rise to or lead to are often used.

3. The verb to make can also be used to link cause and effect

Use of nouns, adjectives, prepositions

1. Your telegram is the cause of the confusion.

The heavy traffic is the reason for the delay.

2. The increase in crime is due to unemployment. This discovery is the result of years of research.

3. We stayed at home because of the weather.

He was admired because of his originality.

lie lost his memory as a result of a severe blow on the head.

3. The flight will be delayed owing to the late arrival of the incoming

aircraft.

On account of the strike all pay­ments will be postponed.

Compare:

The closure of the factory was due 1. A cause-effect relationship may be ex­pressed by certain nouns or adjectives: be the cause of, be the reason for, be responsible for.

2. Be due to and be the result of focus on the effect.

3. Because of (suggests a less direct connec­tion between cause and effect than as a result of). Because of gives an idea that the speaker looks at the situation, makes a mental judge­ment and feels the reason important for him/herself while as a result of suggests that the cause of the event exists objectively.

4. Owing to, on account of (fml.) have a similar meaning to because of

On account of is used especially to explain the reason for a difficulty, problem or failure. Due to is not accepted in traditional grammar as a preposition though it is often used in this way in spoken English.

to a lack of orders.

5. The war was lost through bad or­ganisation.

It was through John that they found each other.

a) Actually, he’s not very bright. He passed his exam thanks to his hard work.

b) It was thanks to your stupidity that we lost the game.

I came just out of interest.

She was exhausted from all the sleepless nights.

5. The prepositions through, thanks to, out of, from can be often used in the expression of emotion or feeling.

Through is used: a) to explain why smth has succeeded or failed; b) = "by means of'. Thanks to is used: a) to explain why smth good has happened and especially if you are grateful to the person/thing that made it pos­sible; b) in the ironical sense

Out of is used especially when smb has done smth they would not usually do.

From is used in collocations

Use of conjunctions

The cause-effect relationship can be expressed by means of conjunctions, which introduce subordinate clauses.

I She was hungry, so she made a sandwich.

a) The shop didn't attract enough cus­tomers, so it closed.

b) As the shop didn't attract enough

customers, it closed.

2. I'm doing this because I enjoy it. They enter politics because they're hungrу for power.

3. a) As he can't be at home now it's no use phoning him.

As she has forgotten her camera we won't be able to take any photographs. Since you're so friendly with him why don't you go and meet him?

b) Since computers have been introduced industries have had to be reorganised.

4 The princess was sad, for her father had died.

1. So introduces a subordinate clause which expresses the consequence of the main clause. It contrasts with because, since, as which introduce subordinate clauses ex­pressing the reason for the main clause (b).

2. Because emphasises the reason, which a listener may not know. It is usually given after the main clause.

3. a) As and since (a little more formal than as) tend to imply that the listener already knows the reason and these linkers therefore give more prominence to the effect. They are more often placed at the beginning of the sentence.

2. In some cases there is ambiguity because as and since may also refer to time.

3. For can express reason. It is more char­acteristic of an old-fashioned or literary style.

4. The reason (why) can be placed at the beginning of the sentence and linked to the clause explaining the reason by that or be-

3. The reason (why) she left him was that he treated her so badly.

The reason (why) they lost the game is because their goalkeeper is no good. The room is cold. That’s why you are trembling.

cause.

That's why (less formal) has the same meaning but it starts a new sentence.

Use of linkers

1. Terrorist attacks have been pre­dicted. Consequently security has been strengthened at Heathrow.

The price of raw materials has in­creased. As a result a fall in demand can be expected.

The person in question violated the rules of the club. Accordingly he has been expelled.

2. The economic situation was poor. We therefore postponed our plans for expansion.

The Bank of England has lowered its rate of interest. Thus a similar reduction can be expected from other banks.

3. a) One side of the rectangle is 4 cm and the other is 3 cm. Hence, the total area is 12 cm².

Modern societies need educated workers. Thus we must increase spending on education.

The town was built on the River Cam: hence the name Cambridge,

2. We shall spend more money on education and thus give our young people hope for the future.

1. Consequently, as a result/ consequence, accordingly, for this reason, therefore, thus, hence are used in formal English to create It cause-effect link between two separate sentences. Their meaning is similar to so, though there are certain differences.

Consequently, accordingly, and as a result / consequence are used mainly to describe direct results and when describing actions/events at a particular time, place etc.

2. Therefore (without a comma) can be used instead of thus to state a result. It normally goes after the subject of the sentence or after the verb to be or any modal auxiliary verb.

3. Both hence and thus are used when one sentence explains another. Hence is used mainly for conclusions that a person could ar­rive at using his/her own logic or reasoning Thus is used for making conclusions follow­ing objective logic.

Notice: Hence can come after a colon, semicolon, comma or dash.

2. Thus can also mean “by this method\ “by doing this”. Notice that there is no comma after it. Thus is less formal than hence.

Other ways of expressing cause and effect

1. Effect or consequence can be expressed through the constructions: so +adjective/adverb -that and such +noun phrase + that. _

2. If you boil the egg too long it gets/will get hard. 3. Evicted from their home, the family had to stay with friends. The president having left earlier than expected, we closed the meeting.	2 Conditional clauses can express a cause- effect relationship. 3. Cause or reason may be indicated by the use of participle phrases: the past participle or the structure having + past participle. These structures are used particularly in formal English.
Particularly in spoken English, we can set up a cause-effect link in many other ways. The expressions that we use are often not explicit but rely on the context of the conversation to make their meaning clear and occur at different levels of formality:
A: I didn’t see John at school today. B: Yes, ... He was sick last night and I kept him at home. A: Why didn’t John go to school today? B: Well, you see, he wasn’t well last night. A: The girl get on my nerves: she’s always so irritable! B: the thing is/it’s like this; she’s got serious family problems. A: I was wondering why you hadn’t typed those letters? B: If I could explain, /The main reason, Mr. Johnson, is that it has taken me so long to contact all your agents.		neutral lan­guage; more informal language; more formal language.

Exercise 1. Rewrite using DUE TO, OWING TO.

3. There were many casualties because the German guns shelled [their posi­tions].

4. F'rance’s existing army personnel of 285,000 would be cut by 50,000-

0. men in “five or six years”. One of the reasons for it is that some

0. French troops from Germany are expected to be withdrawn.

5. There are occasions when flights are delayed and we can’t control the situation.

6. Once a printer failed to decipher my proof corrections, and a book of mine appeared with a recipe which called for the whisked whites of 123 eggs... no reader has ever written to me demanding an explanation of this recipe.

7. Real Italian Parmesan is very expensive; so it’s unlikely to be sprinkled generously over your food in Italian restaurants.

8. Guardsman Evans was unable to jump as the pilot decided to land. The thing is, darkness was approaching.

9. Young people’s exposure to rock music may be a possible reason why deafness among is increasing, say scientists.

10. The relaxing effect of music is well known. That is why, some lan­guage teachers find classical music useful in their lessons.

11. If you come from a city, you may find it hard to sleep in the country because it is very quiet there.

12. People hold noisy parties: hence many quarrels between neighbours.

Exercise 2. Translate into Russian. What linkers would you use to express cause-effect relationship in Russian.

1. He previously worked in the Ministry of Finance. He comes, therefore, with a great deal of experience and expertise.

2. These birds truly enjoy flying and should therefore be housed in lengthy aviaries.

3. The second millennium did not commence until January 1, 1001. Thus the second thousand years does not finish until December 31, 2000.

4. Most study groups are held during the day, thus avoiding evening or rush-hour travel.

5. Firms can contract out work to one another, and thus acquire specialized services, equipment and skills none of them could possess alone.

6. Only part of the restaurant was being used, and as a result the tables were closer together than usual.

7. On their travels they indulged their hobby of collecting antique furniture. As a result their home had become something of a museum.

8. Our son is at school near here, so that's another reason for not moving.

9. I was still unsure about the need for a book. So. I consulted several aca­demic experts on Foucault.

10. I travel the globe six months of every year. Because of this I honestly believe that I know more about the airline business than any of my competitors.

11. Both were adopted Korean girls, and because of this, felt almost like sis­ters.

12. He has attained superstar status, he has achieved a massive following and, consequently, he now has power, success and unlimited money.

13. The love affair itself never comes alive. Consequently, the novel's moral

dilemmas fail to grip.

14. 50,000 tourists visit the region annually. As a consequence, tourist traffic must be regulated and subjected to very tight restrictions.

15. Alice had to take four sleeping pills before she could get back to sleep and as a consequence failed, for the first time in her life, to turn up for a 7,00 am call.

16. Once Alastair got so carried away that he attempted to speak through his snorkel, and nearly drowned in consequence.

17. The Party identified itself with the welfare and happiness of people. It was in consequence trusted by the people.

18. Peace is not secured by alienating people, but rather by uniting them.

19. Accordingly, the goal is to learn to live together in tolerance and mutual understanding.

20. The financing of social services affects everybody. They are, accordingly, the object of much heated discussion by economists and politicians.

21. Linguistics, then, is the field which classifies the pronunciation, grammar, meaning and use of language and hence provides terminology to talk about these matters

22. She hit the soldier's outstretched arm, and thereby saved the life of a demonstrator whom he was about to shoot at point-blank range.

23. Smokers stay longer in hospital, thereby depriving non-smoking patients of treatment.

24. "I'm sure all the obvious methods have been checked."— "In that case there's not much I can do."

* возможно вам будет интересно познакомиться с некоторыми ре­зультатами дипломного исследования показателей выводного зна­ния в английском языке. Дипломная работа выполнена О.В. Тарасенко (10.06.2004) на кафедре английской филологии ф-та РГФ, ВГУ.

Как показал анализ:

1. Показатели выводного знания (therefore, thus, hence), обнаруживают стилистические предпочтения, а именно, чаще всего употребляются в научно-публицистической литературе.

1. Что касается частотности употребления рассматриваемых маркеров, то в текстах научно публицистического стиля Therefore (122) употребляется в 1,5 раза чаще чем Thus (81) и в 13 раз чаще чем Hence (9). В свою очередь, Thus в 9 раз чаще, чем Hence.

2. В текстах научного стиля предпочтения отдаются маркеру Thus 19, который употребляется в 1,1 раза чаще, чем Therefore (16) и в 19 раз чаще, чем Hence (1).

3. Анализ текстов сообщений на научных конференциях, выделенный нами как отдельный жанр (выступления), показал, что Therefore - 6 употребляется в 2 раза чаще, чем Thus - 3 и в 3 раза чаще, чем Hence - 2.

4. Характерно, что в текстах художественной литературы, особенно диалогической речи, и звучащей речи нам не удалось обнаружить случаев выражения выводного знания при помощи therefore, thus, hence. В качестве ПВЗ выступают so, and, then, in that case, in which case и др. наряду с паравербальными средствами (интонация, пауза, акцент).

Ср. Either I know ту job, in which case I shall know the answer to your questions. Or else I do not know my job, in which case I probably should not be here.

Exercise 3.

A: Study the cause and its effect. Fill in the gaps in the sentences below, relating to the above mentioned facts.

СAUSE: The government's disastrous economic policies.

EFFECT: A drastic decline in the government's popularity.

The government’s economic policy has been disastrous: a drastic decline in

its popularity.

_ , government’s popularity has declined drastically.

Self-access Grammar Guide 1

for 3^rd Year Students 1

CONTENTS 3

1.1. INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION 4

g) 20

1.5. CAUSE, EFFECT 36

1.7. RELATIVE CLAUSES 71

1.9. OPINION MARKERS 82

Chapter 2 86

CHAPTER I: REVISION TIME! 99

REVISION! 115

CONDITION 120

Good luck! 126

Self-access Grammar Guide 129

for 3^rd Year Students 129

B: Write as many sentences or sentences pairs as possible expressing the causal relationship between the two facts.

The following linking devises may appear in your sentences: because, led, caused, so, owing, effect, result(ed), due, reason, therefore, consequently, consequence, by, of, to, as.

CAUSE EFFECT

Noun phrase

Great demand for accommodation higher rents

cause

demand for accommodation rents have risen

has increased

Exercise 5. Complete the following letter.

Hillside Cottage, Tumbledown Row, Old South Downe 28 February

Dear Sir,

I’m writing to you we have still not received a reply to a letter we

wrote to you more than two weeks ago. I regret to say that I am still not satisfied with the work done by your company.

Your workmen came yesterday you sent them to rectify their

mistakes. They did, in fact, attempt to repair the roof, and this has been

done I should feel happier. However, they made no attempt to replumb the extension I am still extremely dissatisfied.

They say they have done the plumbing, and there are pipes under

the floorboards, this is true, but these pipes do not work. My suspicion is that they

have not been correctly joined, and we have buckets ready water starts

dripping through the floor of the extension down into our living room! In addition we

have switched the electricity off. the faulty wiring causes a fire!

We are looking forward to hearing your comments on this.

Yours faithfully,

Mrs B.O'Brien

BODGER & SON

ALL FALLE DOWNE

Tom - please pass this message on to Dick and Harry. Mrs O'Brien has written again

- please put your work right immediately she stops writing to me. I've

been to see the extension in question and I agree with what she's said. She's

dissatisfied that I wouldn’t be surprised if she took us to court - but I don’t blame her -

the work is bad we'll all be out of a job if you don't do better! It was

a straightforward job I can't believe such a mistake

has been made.

So please get things sorted out, .I’ll have to see Dick and Harry myself.

Please get in touch with them immediately.

A.Bodger