2.2. The Celtic Societies of the British Isles

After most of the B.I. had been populated by these tribes, further settlers came from the Rhine valley. They were successive tribes of Celts, who came in 3 distinct waves. About 700 BC came the Gauls from the upper Rhineland; about 500 BC the Brythons (a name which evolved into Britons); and about 100 BC the Belgae, a mixture of Celts and Germanic tribes. They brought better ploughs and iron tools, including axes with which some clearing of the rivers began. The Celts were mostly farmers, and with their better tools they built better villages. Their society was still tribal, with some remaining features of primitive communism.

We know more about the Celts than about the earlier inhabitants of the island, because of the existing written accounts. The Greeks were the first to mention the B.I. They tell about the Phoenicians, who were great sailors and traders and who traveled as far as the shores of B.

Some of the Celtic tribes were quite large and fighting was common among them. In war-time the Celts wore skins and painted their faces with a blue dye to make themselves look fierce. They were armed with swords and spears and used chariots on the battle-field.

The Celts worshipped Nature. They imagined the sky, the sun, the moon, the earth and the sea, to be ruled by beings like themselves, but much more powerful. They also believed in many nameless spirits who lived in the rivers, lakes, mountains and thick forests. To their gods the Celts sacrificed not only animals, but also human beings. The Celts’ priests were called druids who were also teachers and doctors for they were wiser than the other tribesmen.

Wise women were also considered to be very important. There were women prophets, and women warriors who trained young men in arms; some women were made tribal chiefs and called queens.

To this day the descendants of the ancient Celts live on the territory of the B.I. The Welsh who live in Wales are of Celtic origin. Some words of the Celtic language can still be found in Modern English and most of them are geographical names. Thus in England there are several rivers called Avon which in Celtic means a river. Some rivers have the name of Derwent, which in Celtic means clear water.

2.3. Roman Britain

Soon after Belgae came to B. the Roman Empire was extended to the homelands of the remaining Belgae in the area where now is northern France and Belgium. These tribes were stubborn in defence of their independence, and their resistance was supported by those Belgae who had come to Britain. Julius Caesar therefore brought troops to attack B., and raided the country in 55 and 54 BC. His attacks were resisted by Cassivellaunus, the chief of all the Celts in southern B.

In 55 BC a Roman army of 10,000 men crossed the Channel and invaded B. The Celts rushed to attack the invaders and made a great impression on the Romans, who saw them for the first time in battle. On the occasion of the battle their hair and moustaches were dyed red and their legs and arms were painted blue. With loud shouts they attacked the invaders in chariots and on foot and made the invincible Romans led by the greatest general of that time return to Gaul.

The next year, 54 BC, Caesar returned to D. With 25,000 men. The Romans who had better arms and were much better trained defeated the Celts in several battles. Some of the chiefs submitted and promised to pay tribute to Rome. Caesar then went back to Gaul to complete his conquest on the Continent. But the promised tribute was never paid, so we can hardly call it a conquest in the full meaning of the word.

In 43 AD a Roman army led by Claudius invaded B. The military conquest. was soon achieved, but Romans could not control all the territory of the island. The tribes in the far north (now Scotland) continued their struggle against the intruders and the Romans had to build two walls for their defence across Britain.

Roman civilization in B. lasted for about 400 years and left many traces in towns and roads. Architecture was one of the main achievements of the Romans, and many stone buildings were constructed as well as a network of roads which according to their customs Romans built through though the occupied region. Many words of Modern English have come from Latin. For example, the word street came from the Latin strata which means “road”, port from the Latin portus, wall from vallum. The names of many modern English towns are of Latin origin too. The word castra which means “camps” can be recognized in such names as Chester, Winchester, Manchester, Leicester, Lancaster and others.

In the 3d – 4^th centuries the power of the Roman Empire gradually weakened. The unproductive labour of the slaves led to the economic decline of the empire. Early in the 5^th century (407) the Roman legions were recalled from B. to defend the central provinces of the Roman Empire from the attacks of the barbarian tribes. They did not return to Britain, and the Celts were left alone in the land.