In the middle ages 117

double end to fulfill; and consequently everybody

admitted that there must be in human society

two kinds of rule, — a te mpora land a spiritual. The

spiritual hierarchy is verycleaHy constituted :

above the groups in parishes, directed by the rec-

tors, are the bishops; above the abbeys directed by

the abbots are the heads of the order; above all is

the Pope, who represents Christ on earth. As for

the temporal domain, above single states which

were in process of formation, and which, for the

most part, were governed by kings, the theorists

proclaimed the rights of a Single Monarch. This

was a political jDOstulate. It was the Caesarian

dream which, from the time of Charlemagne, had

haunted the mediaeval mind, and which was never

more brilliantly defended.

One may read, in the De Monarchia of Dante,

the weighty considerations which the philosophical

poet urges in defense of the universal monarchy,

the political panacea which was to restore the

golden age on earth. A single monarch, raised

above the different kings of feudal Europe, was re-

quired to effect the unification of human society.

There was no other method of establishing unity

among the scattered groups of human kind, of sub-

ordinating the parts to the interest of all.^^

23 Constat quod totum humane genus ordlnatur ad unum . . . Partes

humanae universitatis respondent ad ipsam per unum principium. . . .

Humanum genus potest regi per unum principem . . . quod potest fieri

per unum melius est fieri per unum quam per plura. Lib. I, passim.

118 PHILOSOPHY AND CIVILIZATION

After introducing these philosophical considera-

tions, Dante enters upon the practical bearings of

the problem. This is, he says, the only method of

avoiding contentions in the world. Since he w^ould

be the most powerful ruler on earth, the Single

Monarch must necessarily be just, and exempt

from all covetousness, — just as Plato's ideal philos-

opher by very conception must practice justice.

For, his jurisdiction would not be like those of the

kings of Castile and Aragon, whose kingdom is

limited; quite the contrary, he would rule from

ocean to ocean.

Not that the universal monarch need occupy him-

self with each municipality. There needs must be

a number of kingdoms ; for the Scythians, who live

in a country where the days and the night are un-

equal, cannot be ruled by the same laws as the

Garamantes who live at the equinox. Still there

are interests common to all peoples, and these can

be entrusted only to a single ruler.'* The universal

monarch should therefore occupy himself above all

with universal peace, and it is from him that the

kings of the single states should receive rules for

their conduct with this end in view. Once more re-

ciu'ring to a philosophical comparison, but in poeti-

cal form, he says that this rule of conduct, to insure

harmony among mankind, should be prescribed by

-i Ut hunianum genus secundum sua communia quae omnibus

corapetunt ab eo regatur et communi regula gubernetur ad pacem.

Ibid.