In the middle ages 113

known passages,^" Thomas Aquinas and his dis-

ciple Giles of Lessines observe that the geo-centric

system is only an hypothesis, and that the celestial

movements are perhaps susceptible of explanation

by theories j^et to be discovered by man. To be

sure, Thomas minimizes the influence of the action

of the heavens ; he restricts this action to the dispo-

sition of the human body, and rejects any such ac-

tion upon the intellect and the will." Nevertheless,

the astronomico-philosophical doctrines are admit-

ted as parts of the whole, because their incorpora-

tion satisfies the need of unity. Moreover, they are

necessary for a proper understanding of their

magic and alchemy, — or, again, of the interdiction

by the University of Paris against the astrology

of Roger Bacon, who exaggerated its directive in-

fluence in human affairs.

16 Thomas Aquinas, In lib. II de Coelo, lectio 17. About 1332 an

unknown teacher taught the following at Paris: quod si terra move-

retur et coelum quiesceret, esset in mundo melior dispositio {cf. P.

Duhem, "Francois de Mayronnes et la rotation de la terre," Archi-

vum Franscisanum Historicum, 1913, pp. 23-25). Nicholas of Ores-

mes taught the same doctrine about 1362, — over a hundred years

before the birth of Copernicus (1473).

It is important to observe, that in regard to astronomical questions

the scholastics of the thirteenth century had more liberal ideas than

had their successors of the seventeenth century. The latter refused

to acknowledge the evidence of the discoveries made by the tele-

scope, — and thus they helped to discredit the very philosophy of

which they were such unworthy successors.

17 Swmma Theol, la 2ae, p. IX, art. 5.

114 PHILOSOPHY AND CIVILIZATION

III

There is yet another mediaeval doctrine which

sounds strangely to our modem ears, and which

furnishes a further interesting example of their

felt need of ordering things. I refer to their dream

of a universal brotherhood, which they hoped to

reahze by organizing a kind of Christian republic,

— a republic which should embrace all mankind.

If we wish to understand this "society of man-

kind," to grasp its essential point, we must more

than ever think directly in the mental terms of the

time. Let us look then at this universitas humana

through the eyes of Dante the poet, Thomas Aqui-

nas the philosopher, and Innocent IV the canonist.

We shall find that in its theoretical form it is a bril-

liant manifestation of the centripetal tendencies of

the time; and that also in its practical form it ap-

pears in a garb which well suits the thirteenth cen-

tury.

God created all beings; all beings are subject to

His providence. He is the Sovereign, the King of

the universe. Everywhere in His kingdom there is

a certain fixed hierarchy and order; yet in such

wise that all depends upon Him and tends toward

Him. The angels, who are pure spirit, are ar-

ranged in degrees of perfection, but are all in His

service and contemplate His infinitude. Man, who

is spirit united with matter, dwells in a corporeal

space, the earth, awaiting a future day when he