In the middle ages 71

number of the members. In consequence of this

arrangement, there was a great increase in the

teaching profession. The right to teach could not

be withheld from any student who had completed

the regular course of studies; and the nimiber of

masters of arts incorporated in the faculty was

theoretically unlimited. We readily recognize cer-

tain characteristic features in this system of uni-

versity .instruction of the thirteenth century : free

competition in teaching among all those who have

taken their degree; freedom of the students who

have become doctors, or "masters," to open schools

beside their former masters; and freedom of the

students to select their own masters, — the clearest

in exposition, the most eloquent in delivery, the

most profound in thought — entirely according to

choice.

This freedom in the teaching career was reflected

in the teaching itself, — in the spirit and action of

the masters. There was really great freedom of

thought and of speech in the thirteenth century, —

notwithstanding what is now commonly believed on

this subject. A very striking example may be

taken from the end of the century, in the person

of the philosopher Godfrey of Fontaines, — who was

also a "Doctor in Theology." F^-om the teacher's

chair, — and aware of his privilege and responsibil-

ity — he directs the severest' criticism against his su-

72 PHILOSOPHY AND CIVILIZATION

perior, the Bishop of Paris, Simon of Bucy.^ He

justifies his audacity by invoking the principle that

a Doctor of the University is bound to declare the

truth, however his speech may offend the rich and

the powerful. "Few there are to be found," he

says, "who can be blamed for excess of frankness;

but many indeed for their silence." Pauci inveni-

untur qui ctdpari possunt de excessu in veritate di-

cenda, plurimi vero de taciturnitate^ One could

cite many more examples of this great freedom of

speech among the masters ; the University sermons

especially are full of it.^

Although the University of Paris possessed four

faculties, it was especially famous for its teaching

of philosophy and theology, just as Bologna, the

twin sister of Paris, was famed for its juridical

learning. Paris outstripped by far the University

of Oxford, which was its only rival in this particu-

lar field.*' Thus Paris became the philosophical

3 For details see my study of Godfrey of Fontaines; Etudes sur la

vie, les oeuvres et I'influence de Godefroid de Fontaines, Louvain,

1904.

4 Oodefridi de Fontihus Quodlibeta, XII, q. vi, (fol. 278 Rb), Latin

MS. No. 15842, Bibl. Nat. I am editing these Quodlibeta, with the

aid of former pupils; three volumes have appeared (in the series:

Les Philosophes Beiges, vols. II and III, Louvain, 1904 and 1914),

and two or three more will follow.

5 See, for example, C. Langlois: "Sermons parisiens de la pre-

miere moitid du Xlll'e s. contenus dans le Ms 691 de la Bibl. d' Ar-

ras" (Journal des Savants, 1916, pp. 488 and 548).

6 Many other universities were established on the model of Paris

and Bologna; for instance, Cambridge, Montpellier, Toulouse, Sala-

manca, Valladolid, Naples, — all of the thirteenth century.