In the middle ages 59

the psychological, which may be briefly summar-

ized as follows: Although there exist only individ-

ual men, although each one is independent of the

other in his existence, the mind nevertheless pos-

sesses the general notion of humanity which belongs

to each of them; but this form of generality is a

product of our conceptual activity and does not

affect the real existence.^'^ Therewith was given in

compact form essentially the scholastic solution of

the famous problem of the relation between the uni-

versal and the particular.

This doctrine had grown up gradually, and its

formation runs parallel with that of the feudal

sentiment. Even while it is being clearly expressed

in the various philosophical works, the feudal feel-

ing of chivalry appears in all its purity and

strength in the Chansons de Geste. The most ar-

dent defenders of the philosophical solution are the

sons of chevaliers, — the impetuous Abaelard, heir

of the seigneurs of Pallet; Gilbert de la Porree,

bishop of Poitiers; the aristocratic John of Salis-

biny, who writes concerning this question: "The

22 "lUud quoque quod supra meminimus, intellectus scilicet universa-

lium fieri per abstractionem et quomodo eos solos, nudos, puros nee

tamen cassos appelemus . . ." Edit. Geyer, pp. 24 ff. The epistemo-

logical solution appears clearly in the following text: "Cum enim

hunc hominem tantum attendo in natura substantiae vel corjjoris, non

etiam animalis vel hominis vel grammatici, profecto nihil nisi quod

in ea est intelligo, sed non omnia quae habet, attendo. Et cum dico

me attendere tantum eam in eo quod hoc habet, illud tantum ad at-

tentionem refertur, non ad modum subsistendi, alioquin cassus esset

intellectus." Ibid., p. 25.

60 PHILOSOPHY AND CIVILIZATION

world has grown old treating of it, and has taken

more time for its solution than the Caesars took to

conquer and govern the world. "^^

The great scholastics of the thirteenth century

will appropriate this doctrine to their purposes,

bringing it into harmony with psychology and

ethics and social and political theories; and they

will incorporate it in that great synthesis which is

the most commanding product of the mediaeval

mind, — that is, scholasticism.

To sum up. The twelfth century witnesses a

new civilization established in a striking form. The

struggles of kings with vassals, the coming of the

communes, the establishment of citizenship, the

freedom of the serfs, — all of these facts are evi-

dence that the balance is being established among

social forces. New habits, based upon the dignity

and the self-respect of the individual, were born out

of feudalism, and the Church impressed upon them

the stamp of Christianity. A new art springs into

life, and intellectual culture makes noteworthy

progress. The spirit of localism, which was the

result of split-up feudalism, breaks out in the nu-

merous schools of the West; and herein appears

first the reflection of the age in its philosophy. The

demarcation of boundaries between philosophy and

all other disciplines discloses a further harmony be-

tween its philosophy and the general spirit of the

age, — an age which constructs in all departments

22 Polycrulicus, VII, 12.