In the middle ages 281

compatibility of duty with pleasure, and of varia-

ble moral laws with its unchangeable principles/

The same is true of their aesthetics, since the beau-

tiful is at once subjective and objective. And again

in their logic this same spirit appears, as they estab-

lish the right of both deduction and induction.

This moderation appears also in their social phi-

losophy; for sovereignty in the state belongs both

to the people and to those who receive power, by

delegation from the people/ Moderation is like-

wise found in their theory of progress and culture,

which takes account of both that which is fixed in

human nature and that which is changeable and

perfectible/ — '^'^l

Thus, in all of its reflection scholasticism seeks 1

the golden mean and avoids extremes ; it delights in |

the solution that mediates between opposing vi^sKS^

For all these reasons it is a profoundly human phi-

losophy, — that is, a philosophy which is fitted for

beings bound by corporeal conditions and yet also

participating in the spiritual realm.

The importance of personality, the supremacy

of reason and of clear ideas, a sense of measure and

of moderation in the doctrines which constitute it;

these three characteristics of scholastic philosophy

are in perfect accord with the western civilization

of the thirteenth century.

6C/. ch. XII, ii.

7 Cf. ch. XII.

8C/. ch. XI, iii.

282 PHILOSOPHY AND CIVILIZATION

III

And now we must consider a further fact — one

of central importance. This civihzation is above

all the product of French influence; France is the

centre from which it casts its light everywhere.^

From this angle, it is interesting to note how the

masters of scholastic philosophy, those who brought

it to its full development and who affixed to it the

imprint of their genius, were all educated in France,

— whether French or Italian or English or Flem-

ish, or Walloon. Thomas Aquinas and Bonaven-

ture belong to great Italian families ; Alexander of

Hales, Duns Scotus, William of Occam, and many

more, are Anglo-Celts; Gerard of Abbeville, Wil-

liam of Auvergne, William of Auxerre belong to

France; Henry of Ghent, Siger of Courtrai are

natives of Flanders; Godfrey of Fontaines is of

the nobility of Liege. All of these masters met in

Paris, where they resided and taught; and they are

therefore French by education. Scholastic philos-

ophy in the thirteenth century is even more a sys-

tem of Gallicae Sententiae than it was in the time

of Adelard of Bath.^*'

On the other hand, the role of the Germans is

surprisingly negligible. The only personality of

note that comes from beyond the Rhine is Swabian,

Albert the Great, Count of Bollstadt. His contri-

bution to scholastic philosophy is deserving of the

8 See chs, II, ii; III, i; IV, ii, iii; V, iv.

10 Cf. above, p. 41.