In the middle ages 255

forms of government) differ in kind . . . neverthe-

less the first place is held by the "kingdom," where

the power of government is vested in one, an "aris-

tocracy," which signifies government by the best,

where the power of government is vested in a few.

Accordingly, the best form of government is in a

state or kingdom, wherein one is given the power

to preside over all ; while under him are others hav-

ing governing powers. And yet a government of

this kind is shared hy all, both because all are eligi-

ble to govern, and because the rulers are chosen by

all. For this is the best form of polity, being partly

kingdom, since there is one at the head of all ; partly

aristocracy, in so far as a number of persons are set

in authority ; partly democracy, i.e., government by

the people, in so far as the rulers can be chosen

from the people, and the people have the right to

choose their rulers."^*'

In this passage, written about 1250, the follow-

ing political principles are affirmed: universal suf-\

frage, the right of the humblest citizen to be raised \

to the highest power, the consecration of personal \

worth and virtue, a representative and elective /

monarchy, and the right of the people to delegate,

to those who are most worthy of it, that sacred gift

of God called power.

This pregnant text contains in a condensed form,

16 jSttm-mo Theol. lagae, q. CV, art. 1. English translation (Domi-

nicans), Part II (First Part), Third Number, p. 250, Benzinger,

1915, New York.

256 PHILOSOPHY AND CIVILIZATION

in "latin lapidaire," a considerable number of prob-

lems, of which we shall consider only a few.

First, since the state must serve the good of the

individual, it is necessary that those whom the

popular will places at the head shall have intelli-

gence, and sufficient moral integrity, to see and un-

derstand the public interest and to promote it.

Thus, government by insight is necessary. Reason,

which is given such a high place in the economy of

individual life,^^ is also the sovereign guide in social

life. The system of delegated power will be the

more perfect in proportion as it sees to it that

power shall be placed in the hands of the most de-

serving, — or, rather, the most virtuous, to use the

mediaeval phrase. Again, men of action ought to

be under the direction of men of insight; for, "in

the direction of human affairs, excess arises from

the fact that the man at the head really has no head.

Those who excel in powers of understanding are

natural leaders," — in regimine humano inordinatio

provenit ex eo quod non propter intellectus prae-

eminentiam aliquis praeest.^^

This is why the most perfect form of delegation

of power is the elective system; for as Thomas

writes in his commentary on the Politics of Aris-

totle, election is a work of reason,^^ and the means

17 See above ch. VIII, iii and iv.

^^ Contra Oentiles, lib. Ill, cap. 78. Illi qui intellectu praeeminent

nuturuliter dominantur.

IB Electio per se est appetitus ratione determinatus Com. in Politic,

lib. Ill, lectio 14.