2. Metonymy

Metonymy is also based upon analogy. There is an objective relationship between the object named and the object implied, a relation based on association connecting the 2 concepts which these meanings represent.

Labour demonstrated in the streets (=workers).

The hall applauded.

The kettle boiled.

3. Synecdoche is a specific kind of metonymic relationship - a qualitative one where a part stands for a whole, the singular stands for the plural, e.g.: a Red Hat

I want to live with the wolf and the owl (I want to live in the wood).

4. Irony

Irony is a stylistic device also based on the simultaneous realization of two logical meanings - dictionary and contextual, but these two meanings stand in opposition to each other. A denomination is replaced by its opposite. The notion named and the notion meant are different.

How clever of you! (means «silly»)

Irony must not be confused with humour. Humour always causes laughter.

Irony is generally used to convey a negative meaning. It expresses a feeling of irritation, displeasure, pity or regret.

5. Polysemy

Derivative logical meanings always retain semantic ties with the primary meaning. In actual speech polysemy vanishes. A context that does not seek to produce any particular stylistic effect generally materializes one definite meaning. But sometimes words are intentionally made to reveal 2 or more meanings.

Example 22: «Massachusetts was hostile to the American flag, and she would not allow it to be hoisted (raise) on her State House». The word flag is used in its primary meaning when it appears in combination with the verb 'to hoist' and in its derivative (or contextual) meaning in the combination 'was hostile to'.

6. Zeugma and 7. Pun

There are 2 stylistic devices which make a word materialize 2 distinct meanings. They are zeugma and pun. Zeugma is the use of a word in 2 meanings - literal and figurative.

Pun. The term is synonymous to the expression 'play on words' or paronomasia (каламбур). It is also based on the interaction of the 2 well-known meanings of a word or a phrase in the same context.

Pun may be based; 1) on polysemy:

- Did you hit a woman with a child. - No, sir, I hit her with a brick.

2) on homonymy:

Diner: Is it customary to tip the waiter? - Waiter: Why, yes, sir. - Diner: Then hand me a tip. I've waited half an hour.

8. Interjections and exclamatory words:

Interjections can be divided into primary (Oh! Ah! Bah! Gosh! Hush!) and derivative (Heavens! Good gracious! Dear me! God knows! Bless me! and many others).

The latter are sometimes called exclamatory words used as interjections. Some adjectives and adverbs can take on the function of interjections (Terrible! Splendid! Wonderful! Fantastic! and the like).

9. The Epithet

It is a figure of speech, a word or a phrase expressing some quality. It serves to emphasize some property or feature. The Epithet reflects a purely individual outlook of the author on the given phenomenon, it doesn't define the thing, doesn't bring out its qualities. It describes the thing as it appears to the speaker. It serves to display the author's or speaker's emotional attitude to his communication.

Epithets may be close to metaphors when certain properties of one class of things are reflected upon another class of things

The dawn with silver sandaled feet crept like a frightened girl.