5. Who was the first person to patent Portland cement?

A type of concrete was first seen again in eighteenth-century France, where stuccoed rubble made to emulate true masonry became fashionable. Francois Cointeraux, a mason in Lyon, searched for an economical means of making fireproof walls by using cementitious mortar in combination with the very ancient pise or "rammed earth" construction technique. Pise calls for the use of timber formwork to contain the clay or mud while it is being compacted, but the use of new and stronger cements made the compacting process unnecessary. In 1824 Joseph Aspdin, an English mason, patented an improved cement which he called Portland cement because it resembled a natural stone quarried on the nearby Isle of Portland. It is generally believed that Aspdin was the first to use high temperatures to heat alumina and silica materials which resulted in fusion. Cement is still made this way today. During the nineteenth century concrete was used for many buildings in Europe, often of an industrial nature, as this "new" material did not have the social acceptability of stone or brick.

from "Reinforced Concrete: Preliminary Design for Architects and Builders" by R.E. Shaeffer, McGraw-Hill, 1992.

Read text 5. Alternatives to Regular Concrete

a) Read the text without a dictionary. Guess the meaning of the unknown words that you may come across.

Text 5. ALTERNATIVES TO REGULAR CONCRETE

Fly-ash concrete, available in many regions, offers an alternative to conventional concrete. Fly-ash is a waste material - the inorganic residue - that remains after pulverized coal is burned in coal-burning power plants. Disposing of it can be a problem. Fortunately, the construction industry has discovered that fly-ash can produce a superior concrete with excellent finishing characteristics. It can replace up to 35 percent of the Portland cement found in conventional concrete mixes.

Each ton of fly-ash used to replace a ton of cement saves the equivalent of approximately one barrel of oil. By replacing cement, the ash produces less of the greenhouse gases that contribute to global warming. Coal fly-ash can also replace clay, sand, limestone and gravel, saving the energy costs of mining such materials.

While fly-ash concrete offers a "greener" alternative to regular concrete mixes, it may not be appropriate for every use. Check with a qualified building professional to see if it fits your application.

Recycled aggregates and lightweight aggregates can replace the usual sand and gravel in some concrete applications. Recycled aggregate can consist of crushed concrete, brick, or crushed glass. Lightweight concrete is made by using expanded volcanic materials - pumice and perlite, for example - to replace some of the usual stone aggregate. Because these materials place less weight on structures, they are of particular value when used on either wood or lightweight steel floors. Volcanic materials also add some thermal insulation value to the concrete.

Health Problems with Concrete

Manufacturing Portland cement creates a great deal of carbon dioxide, a gas that contributes to global climate change. Once concrete is in place in a structure, however, it emits very little air pollution. Because it is often confined to the foundations and concealed structural elements of a building, concrete has minimal exposure to the building's air.

Experts, however, are debating the possibility that concrete produces radon emissions; testing is underway. Other possible sources of indoor air pollution are concrete additives such as water reducers or super-plasticizers, which may produce odors and can cause skin and bronchial irritation in some people.

Coating concrete forms with lubricants makes it easier to remove them once the concrete has set. These form-release agents - sometimes made from diesel oil or other odorous petroleum oils - can produce emissions if they are used in interior applications. Alternatives made from wax or mineral oil instead of petroleum are available as substitutes.

New construction designs use foam blocks as the forms for poured concrete. The forms remain in place, adding energy efficiency and soundproofing to the wall.