Glossary

Abnormal psychology: the branch of psychology that studies unusual patterns of behaviour, emotion and thought, which may or may not be understood as precipitating a mental disease.

Ambiversion: a term used to describe people who fall more or less directly in the middle of extraversion-introversion and exhibit tendencies of both groups. An ambivert is normally comfortable with groups and enjoys social interaction, but also relishes time alone and away from the crowd.

Aphasia: loss of language abilities due to brain damage, usually on the left side of the brain where most people have their “language centres”. When often see aphasia as the result of an adult who has had a stroke and has trouble naming items, remembering words, categorizing and conversing.

Associative learning: the process by which an element is taught through association with a separate, pre-occurring element.

Auditory processing: the work of the brain to understand and remember information we hear: paying attention to a sound in the presence of background noise, auditory memory, auditory discrimination between sounds, sequencing the order of what we hear, forming a concept or image or idea.

Autism or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD): a disorder of neural development characterized by impaired social interaction and communication, and by restricted and repetitive behavior. Autism affects information processing in the brain by altering how nerve cells and their synapses connect and organize.

Behaviour: the actions of a system or organism, the response of them to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary.

Behaviorism: an approach to psychology proposition that behavior can be researched scientifically without recourse to inner mental state. It is a form of materialism, denying any independent significance for the mind.

Child and adolescent psychiatry: the branch of psychiatry that specializes in the study, diagnosis, treatment, and prevention of psychopathological disorders of children, adolescents, and their families. It encompasses the clinical investigation of phenomenology, biologic factors, psychosocial factors, genetic factors, demographic factors, environmental factors, history, and the response to interventions of child and adolescent psychiatric disorders.

Child psychopathology: the manifestation of psychological disorders in children and adolescents. Oppositional defiant disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and pervasive developmental disorder are examples of child psychopathology. Counselors, social workers, psychologist and psychiatrists who work with mentally ill children are informed by research in developmental psychology, developmental psychopathology, clinical child psychology, and family systems.

Clinical psychology: an integration of science, theory and clinical knowledge for the purpose of understanding, preventing and relieving psychologically based distress or dysfunction and to promote subjective well-being and personal development.

Cognition: the scientific term for "the process of thought". It usually refers to an information processing view of an individual's psychological function. Other interpretations of the meaning of cognition link it to the development of concepts; individual minds, groups, and organizations.

Cognitive ability: the overall mental ability for different thinking processes that the brain is capable of.

Cognitive development: a field of study in neuroscience and psychology focusing on a child’s development in terms of information processing, conceptual resources, perceptual skill, language, learning and other aspects of brain development and cognitive psychology.

Cognitive psychology: a subdiscipline of psychology exploring internal mental processes. It is the study of how people perceive, remember, think, speak and solve problems.

Cognitive science: the interdisciplinary study of mind and intelligence, which examines how information concerning facilities such as perception, language, reasoning and emotion are represented and transformed in a brain or a machine (e.g., computer). It consists of multiple research disciplines, including psychology, artificial intelligence, philosophy, neuroscience, learning sciences, linguistics, anthropology, sociology and education.

Comparative psychology: refers to the study of the behavior and mental life of animals other than human beings. Comparative psychology has also been described as branch of psychology in which emphasis is placed on cross-species comparisons—including human-to-animal comparisons.

Compulsive behaviour: behaviour which a person does compulsively – in other words, not because they want to do so but because they have to do so. Compulsive behaviour is intended and appears to follow rules.

Creativity: a human mental phenomenon based around the deployment of mental skills and/or conceptual tools which, in turn, originate and develop innovation, inspiration and insight.

Developmental psychology (or human development): the scientific study of systematic psychological changes that occur in human beings over the course of their life span.

Didactic method: a teaching method that follows a consistent scientific approach or educational style to engage the student’s mind.

Didactics: the theory of teaching and practical application of teaching and learning. In demarcation from "Mathetics" (the science of learning), didactics refers only to the science of teaching. This theory might be contrasted with Open learning, in which people can learn by themselves, in an unstructured manner, on topics of interest.

Education: any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another.

Educational psychology: the study of how human learns in educational settings, the effectiveness of educational inventions, the psychology of teaching and the social psychology of schools or organizations.

Egocentrism (or self-centredness): 1) the incomplete differentiation of the self and the world including other people; 2) the tendency to perceive, understand and interpret the world in terms of the self.

Emotion: the complex psycho-physiological experience of an individual's state of mind as interacting with biochemical (internal) and environmental (external) influences. In humans, emotion fundamentally involves "physiological arousal, expressive behaviors, and conscious experience”. Emotion is associated with mood, temperament, personality and disposition, and motivation.

Evolutionary psychology: is based on the idea that knowledge concerning the function of the psychological phenomena affecting human evolution is necessary for a complete understanding of the human psyche. Even the project of studying the evolutionary functions of consciousness is now an active topic of study.

Extraversion: the state, or habit of being predominantly concerned with and obtaining gratification from what is outside the sel. Extraverts tend to enjoy human interactions and to be enthusiastic, talkative, assertive, and gregarious. They take pleasure in activities that involve large social gatherings, such as parties, community activities, public demonstrations, and business or political groups. Politics, teaching, sales, managing and brokering are fields that favor extraversion.

Forensic developmental psychology: includes autobiographical memory, memory distortion, eyewitness identification, narrative construction, personality, and attachment as topics covered by this field of research. Forensic developmental psychology is oriented toward children's actions and reactions in forensic contexts.

Functional psychology or functionalism: a general psychological philosophy that considers mental life and behavior in terms of active adaptation to the person's environment^. As such, it provides the general basis for developing psychological theories not readily testable by controlled experiments and for applied psychology.

Geriatric psychiatry: a subspecialty of psychiatry dealing with the study, prevention, and treatment of mental disorders in humans with old age. The diagnosis, treatment and management of dementia is one area of this field.

Group dynamics: relevant to the fields of psychology, sociology, a group is two or more individuals who are connected to each other by social relationships. Because they interact and influence each other, groups develop a number of dynamic processes that separate them from a random collection of individuals. These processes include norms, roles, relations, development, need to belong, social influence, and effects on behavior. The field of group dynamics is primarily concerned with small group behavior. Groups may be classified as aggregate, primary, secondary and category groups.

Group psychotherapy: a form of psychotherapy in which one or more therapists treat a small group of clients together as a group. The term is usually applied to psychodynamic group therapy when the group content and group process is explicitly utilized as a mechanism of change by developing, exploring and examining interpersonal relationships within the group.

Habits: routines of behavior that are repeated regularly and tend to occur subconsciously, without one being conscious about them. Habitual behaviour often goes unnoticed in persons exhibiting it, because a person does not need to engage in self-analysis when undertaking routine tasks. Habituation is an extremely simple form of learning, in which an organism, after a period of exposure to a stimulus, stops responding to that stimulus in varied manners.

Handicap: the loss or limitation of opportunities to take part in the life of the community on an equal level with others.

Heuristic: refers to experience-based techniques for problem solving, learning, and discovery. Heuristic methods are used to come to an optimal solution as rapidly as possible. Part of this method is using a "rule of thumb", an educated guess, an intuitive judgment, or common sense.

Intelligence: the mental capacity to reason, plan, solve problems, think abstractly, comprehend ideas and language and learn. In psychology, the study of intelligence generally regards this trait as distinct from creativity, personality, character or wisdom.

Introversion: the state of being predominantly concerned with and interested in one's own mental life. Introverts are people whose energy tends to expand through reflection and dwindle during interaction. Introverts tend to be more reserved and less outspoken in large groups. They often take pleasure in solitary activities such as reading, writing, music, drawing, tinkering, playing video games, watching movies and plays, and using computers.

Kinesthetic learning: a teaching and learning style in which learning takes place by the student actually carrying out a physical activity, rather than listening to a lecture or merely watching a demonstration. Building physical models or participating in role-playing or historical reenacting are some examples of kinesthetic learning.

Knowledge: 1) information of which someone is aware; 2) the confident understanding of a subject, potentially with the ability to use it for a specific purpose.

Learning: the process that brings together cognitive, emotional and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing or making changes in one’s knowledge, skills, values and world views. Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place.

Learning disability: In the United States this term refers to the socio-biological conditions that affect a person’s communicative capacities and potential to learn. The term includes conditions such as perceptive disability, brain injury, minimal brain dysfuncion, autism, dyslexia and developmental aphasia. In the UK the term is used more generally to refer to developmental disability.

Mathetics: the science of learning that uses findings of current interests from pedagogical psychology, neuropsychology and information technology.

Maturation: the process of becoming mature; the emergence of personal and behavioral characteristics through growth process.

Mental disorder: psychological or behavioral pattern associated with subjective, distress or disability that occurs on an individual and which is not a part of normal development or culture.

Methodology: 1) the analysis of the principles of methods, rules, or postulates employed by a discipline; 2) the systematic study of methods that can be applied within a discipline; 3) the study or discipline of methods. Method can be defined as a systematic and orderly procedure or process for attaining some objective.

Motivation: the activation of goal-oriented behaviour. It is said to be intrinsic or extrinsic.

Observational learning (or social learning): a type of learning that occurs as a function of observing, retaining and replicating behavior executed by others. The best role models are those a year or two older for observational learning. Because of this, social learning theory has influenced debates on the effect of television violence and parental role models.

Open learning: a teaching method that is supposed to allow pupils self-determined, independent and interest-guided learning.

Personal development: a process of individual self-development and the development of others.

Personality disorders (or character disorders): a class of personality types and behaviors that the American Psychiatric Association (APA) defines as "an enduring pattern of inner experience and behavior that deviates markedly from the expectations of the culture of the individual who exhibits it".

Pragmatics: the social aspect of language; using language for certain functions such as making requests or indicating refusal. Good understanding and use of pragmatics are essential for good social skills.

Psychiatrist: a physician who specializes in treating mental disorders. All psychiatrists are trained in diagnostic evaluation and in psychotherapy. Psychiatrists may prescribe psychiatric medication, conduct physical examinations, order and interpret laboratory tests and electroencephalograms, and may order brain imaging studies such as computed tomography or computed axial tomography (CT/CAT Scan), magnetic resonance imaging (MRI).

Psychoanalysis (or Freudian psychology): the study of human psychological functioning and behavior, although it can also be applied to societies.

Psychosis: abnormal condition of the mind involving a "loss of contact with reality". People suffering from psychosis are described as psychotic. Psychosis is given to the more severe forms of psychiatric disorder, during which hallucinations and delusions and impaired insight may occur.

Psychology: the science of mind and behavior. Its goal is to understand humanity by both discovering general principles and exploring specific cases, and, thus to benefit society. A professional practitioner or researcher is called a psychologist, and can be classified as a social scientist, behavioral scientist, or cognitive scientist. Psychologists attempt to understand the role of mental functions in individuals and social behavior, while also exploring the physiological and neurobiological processes that underlie certain functions and behaviors.

Role model: means any person who serves as an example, whose behaviour is emulated by others.

School psychology: is a field that applies principles of clinical psychology and educational psychology to the diagnosis and treatment of children's and adolescents' behavioral and learning problems.

Self-awareness: the awareness that one exists as an individual being.

Self-conscious: an acute sense of self-awareness. Some people are habitually more self-conscious than others. Unpleasant feelings of self-conscious are sometimes associated with shyness or paranoia.

Self-control: the ability to control one’s emotions, behaviour and desires in order to obtain some reward later and is the capacity of efficient management to the future. In psychology it is sometimes called self-regulation.

Self-help (self-improvement): self-guided improvement – economically, intellectually, or emotionally – often with a substantial psychological basis.

Self-knowledge: the information that an individual draws upon when finding an answer to the question “What am I like?”

Self-regulated learning: the process guided by metacognition (thinking about one's thinking), strategic action (planning, monitoring, and evaluating personal progress against a standard), and motivation to learn.

Senescence: the change in the biology of an organism as it ages after its maturity. Such changes range from those affecting its cells and their function to that of the whole organism. There are many theories as to why senescence occurs, including one that claims it is programmed by gene expression changes and that it is accumulative damage of biological processes.

Skill: the learned capacity to carry out predetermined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy or both. Skill can often be divided into domain-general and domain-specific skills. For example, in the domain of work, some general skills would include time management, teamwork and leadership, whereas domain-specific skills would be useful only for a certain job. Skill usually requires certain environmental stimuli and situations to assess the level of skill being shown and used.

Social skill: any skill facilitating integration and communication with others. Social rules and relations are created, communicated and changed in verbal and nonverbal ways. The process of learning such rules is called socialization.

Social psychology: the study of the relations between people and groups. Social psychologists employ both the individual and the group as their units of analysis.

Speech delay: a delay in the use of body mechanism to produce sound. There are three broad causes of speech delay: problems with input of speech (difficulty in hearing), problems with processing speech (difficulty in working with what is heard) and problems with output of speech (problems due to physiological constraints).

Training: the term refers to the acquisition of knowledge, skills, and competencies as a result of the teaching of vocational or practical skills and knowledge that relate to specific useful competencies. It forms the core of apprenticeships and provides the backbone of content at institute of technology (also known as technical colleges or polytechnics). In addition to the basic training required for a trade, occupation or profession, observers of the labor-market recognize today the need to continue training beyond initial qualifications: to maintain, upgrade and update skills throughout working life.

Wisdom: the ability to make correct judgments and decisions. Some think it is an intangible quality gained through experience. Yet others think it is a quality that even a child, otherwise, immature, may possess independent of experience or complete knowledge. Wisdom is also accepted from cultural, philosophical and religious sources. Some think of wisdom as foreseeing consequences and acting to maximize beneficial results.

Ability – 1) something that you are able to do, especially because you have a particular mental or physical skill. 2) someone’s, especially a student’s, level of intelligence or skill, especially in school or college work.

Adult – is a human being or living organism that is of relatively mature age, typically associated with sexual maturity and the attainment of reproductive age.

Andragogy – consists of learning strategies focused on adults. It is often interpreted as the process of engaging adult learners with the structure of learning experience. Originally used by Alexander Kapp (a German educator) in 1833, andragogy was developed into a theory of adult education by the American educator Malcolm Knowles.

Appreciation – the act and result of showing someone that you are grateful for something they have done or value it.

Assessment – 1) a process in which you make a judgment about a person or situation. E.g. What’s your assessment of the situation in Northern Ireland? 2) a calculation about the cost or value of something. E.g. a tax assessment.

Auditory learning – based on listening to instructions/information.

Behaviour – 1) refers to the actions of a system or organism, usually in relation to its environment, which includes the other systems or organisms around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the system or organism to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. 2) More generally, behavior can be regarded as any action of an organism that changes its relationship to its environment. Behavior provides outputs from the organism to the environment.

Campus – the grounds of a school, college or university.

Character – 1) the particular combination of qualities that makes someone a particular kind of person. (in this meaning it is close to ‘personality’). 2) a combination of qualities, such as courage and loyalty that are admired and regarded as valuable. E.g. a woman of great character. 3) a person in a book, play, film.

Child – a human between the stages of conception and puberty.

Class participation – a teaching method allowing to stimulate the learning activity of a group of students by their taking part in an activity during a lesson.

Collaborating – having students work in groups is another way a teacher can direct a lesson. Collaborating allows students to talk with each other and listen to all points of view in the discussion. It helps students think in a less personally biased way. When this lesson plan is carried out, the teacher may be trying to assess the lesson by looking at the student's: ability to work as a team, leadership skills, or presentation abilities. It is one of the direct instructional methods.

College – 1) (C, U) (especially BrE) a school for advanced education, especially in a particular subject or skill. E.g., a teacher training college, technical and commercial colleges. The word ‘college’ in this meaning corresponds to the Russian «колледж», «техникум». 2) (C) a place of higher education both in the USA and in Great Britain. The oldest universities in Great Britain are Oxford and Cambridge dating from the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries, respectively. The word corresponds to the Russian «университет». 3) (C) a part of a university. For instance the Universities of Oxford, Cambridge and London are composed of groups of largely autonomous colleges.

Communication – the process by which people exchange information or express their thoughts and feelings.

Communication skills – ways of expressing yourself well so that other people will understand well. E.g. a week’s course in improving communication skills.

Comprehensive school – is a state school that does not select its intake on the basis of academic achievement or aptitude. This is in contrast to the selective school system, where admission is resricted on the basis of a selection criteria. The term is commonly used in relation to the United Kingdom, where comprehensive schools were introduced in the late 1960s. It corresponds broadly to the German Gesamtschule and to the high school in the United States and Canada. About 90% of British pupils attend comprehensive schools.Most comprehensives are secondary schools for children between the ages of 11 to at least 19, but in a few areas there are comprehensive middle schools, and in some places the secondary level is divided into two, for students aged 11 to 14 and those aged 14 to 19, roughly corresponding to the US middle school (or junior high school) and high school, respectively.

Computation – the process, skill or the result of calculating.

Creativity – refers to the phenomenon whereby something new is created which has some kind of value.

Creative thinking – the type of thinking that produces new or effective ideas, results etc.

Defectology – a branch of science that is concerned with the study of the principles and characteristics of the development of children with compound physical and mental defects and the problems of their training and upbringing.

Demonstration – 1) an act of explaining and showing how something works or is done. 2) As a teaching method it is done to provide an opportunity to learn new exploration and visual learning tasks from a different perspective. A teacher may use experimentation to demonstrate ideas in a science class. A demonstration may be used in the circumstance of proving conclusively a fact, as by reasoning or showing evidence.

Development (syn.: evolution) – the process of gradual change of physical, mental and spiritual forces of a person which provide the realization and formation of his personality. (развитие)

Discussion – A different kind of group work. After some preparation and with clearly defined roles as well as interesting topics, discussions may well take up most of the lesson, with the teacher only giving short feedback at the end or even in the following lesson. Discussions can take a variety of forms, e.g. fishbowl discussions.

Educate (verb) – to teach people over a long period of time, in all kinds of knowledge (not just school subjects)

Education – 1) the process by which your mind develops through learning at a school, college, or university. 2) the knowledge and skills that you gain from being taught. (образование)

Education in the largest sense is any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one generation to another.

Educational psychology (school psychology) – the psychological science studying how children and adults learn, the effectiveness of various educational strategies and tactics, and how schools function as organizations.

Evaluation – the act of considering something to decide how useful or valuable it is, or a document in which this is done. E.g. an intensive evaluation of the educational programme.

Explaining – this form is similar to lecturing. Lecturing is teaching by giving a discourse on a specific subject that is open to the public, usually given in the classroom. This can also be associated with modeling. Modeling is used as a visual aid to learning. Students can visualize an object or problem, then use reasoning and hypothesizing to determine an answer.

Grade – (especially AmE) a mark given for a particular piece of work in school, or for your work during all or part of a year. E.g. You need good grades to go to college.

Grammar school – a school in Britain for children over the age of 11 who have to pass a special examination to go there. is one of several different types of school in the history of education in the United Kingdom and some other English-speaking countries, originally schools teaching classical languages but more recently academically-oriented types of secondary school. The original purpose of medieval grammar schools was the teaching of Latin. Over time the curriculum was broadened, first to include Ancient Greek, and later English and other European languages, as well as the natural sciences, mathematics, history, geography and other subjects. In the late Victorian era, grammar schools were re-organised to provide secondary education across the United Kingdom with the exception of Scotland, which had developed a different system. Grammar schools of these types were also established in British territories, where they have evolved in different ways. Grammar schools became the selective tier of the Tripartite System of state-funded secondary education operating in England and Wales from the mid-1940s to the late 1960s and continuing in Northern Ireland. With the move to non-selective comprehensive schools in the 1960s and 1970s, some grammar schools became fully independent and charged fees, while most others were abolished or became comprehensive. In both cases, many of these schools kept "grammar school" in their names. Some parts of England retain forms of the Tripartite System, and there are also a few surviving grammar schools in otherwise comprehensive areas. Some of the remaining grammar schools can trace their histories to before the 16th century.

Hall of residence – (BrE) a college or university building where students live. (AmE: dormitory).

Individuality – is the state or quality of being an individual; a person separate from other persons and possessing his or her own needs, goals, and desires.

Instruct (verb) – to teach someone, especially in a practical way and about a practical skill.

Instructing – refers to the facilitating of learning, usually by a teacher.

Kinesthetic learning – based on hands-on work and engaging in activities.

Knack – 1) a special skill or ability that you usually gain by practice. 2) to have a knack of doing something – to have a tendency to do something. (дар) E.g. This teacher has a knack of dealing with children.

Knowledge – (U) the facts, skills, and understanding that you have gained through learning or experience.

Learn (verb) – 1) to gain knowledge of a subject, or skill in an activity, by experience, by studying it, or by being taught. (учить, выучить, научиться). 2) to find out information, news etc by hearing it from someone else.

Learning (syn.: self-instruction, self-educating) – acquiring, gaining new knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, or preferences and may involve synthesizing different types of information.

Learning by teaching – is a widespread method in Germany, developed by Jean-Pol Martin. The students take the teacher's role and teach their peers. This method is very effective when done correctly. Having students teach sections of the class as a group or as individuals is a great way to get the students to really study out the topic and understand it so as to teach it to their peers. By having them participate in the teaching process it also builds self-confidence, self-efficacy, and strengthens students speaking and communication skills. Students will not only learn their given topic, but they will gain experience that could be very valuable for life.

Logopedics (Speech therapy) – is a branch of defectology that deals with children having various speech defects.

Mark – (especially BrE) a letter or a number given by a teacher to show what standard a piece of work is. (AmE: grade). E.g. Her marks have been a lot lower this term. (pass mark – the mark you need to pass the exam, проходной балл; full mark – highest possible marks).

Memorization (memorizing) – is the process of committing something to memory. The act of memorization is often a deliberate mental process undertaken in order to store in memory for later recall items such as experiences, names, appointments, addresses, telephone numbers, lists, stories, poems, pictures, maps, diagrams, facts, music or other visual, auditory, or tactical information. Memorization may also refer to the process of storing particular data into the memory of a device.

Middle age – is the period of age beyond young adulthood but before the onset of old age. Various attempts have been made to define this age, which is around the third quarter of the average life span of human beings.

Misbehaviour – behaviour that is not acceptable to other people. E.g. Even the most minor forms of misbehaviour were punished.

Motivation – 1) eagerness and willingness to do something without needing to be told or forced to do it. E.g. Jack is an intelligent pupil, but he lacks motivation. 2) the reason why you want to do something. E.g. What was your motivation for becoming a teacher?

Oligophrenopedagogy – is a branch of defectology that deals with mentally retarded children.

Pedagogy – 1) The study of being a teacher (syn.: teacher-training) or the process of teaching. The term generally refers to strategies of instruction, or a style of instruction. 2) Pedagogy is alsooccasionally referred to as the correct use of instructive strategies

Person – is most broadly defined as any individual self-conscious or rational being, or any entity having rights and duties; or often more narrowly defined as an individual human being in particular.

Personality – someone’s character, especially the way they behave towards other people. E.g. Ivan has a very dynamic personality. Personality can be also defined as a dynamic and organized set of characteristics possessed by a person that uniquely influences his or her cognitions, motivations, and behaviors in various situations occasionally referred to as the correct use of instructive strategies.

Primary education (school) – concerns the education of children between five and eleven years old. (AmE: elementary). Normally the primary school is divided into Infants (5-7) and Juniors (7-11).

Psychology – an academic and applied discipline which involves the scientific study of human (or animal) mental functions, all aspects of behaviour and feelings an motivations behind such behaviour.

Puberty – is the process of physical changes by which a child's body becomes an adult body capable of reproduction.

Public school – 1) a private British school, paid for by parents, where children usually live as well as study. 2) a free local school, especially in the US and Scotland, controlled and paid for by the government.

Questioning – A teaching method that includes questioning is similar to testing. A teacher may ask a series of questions to collect information of what students have learned and what needs to be taught. Testing is another application of questioning. A teacher tests the student on what was previously taught in order to identify if a student has learned the material.

Reading – the activity of understanding written words. E.g. Children are taught reading and writing in their first years at primary school.

Recitation – an act of saying a poem, piece of literature etc that you have learned, for people to listen to. 2) A presentation made by a student to demonstrate knowledge of a subject or to provide instruction to others. In some academic institutions the term is used for a presentation by a teaching assistant (TA) or instructor, under the guidance of a senior faculty, that supplements course materials. In recitations that supplement lectures, the leader will often review the lecture, expand on the concepts, and carry on a discussion with the students.

Secondary school – is a term used to describe an educational institution where the final stage of schooling, known as secondary education and usually compulsory up to a specified age, takes place. It follows elementary or primary education, and may be followed by university (tertiary) education. There are many different types of secondary school, and the terminology used varies around the world. Children usually transfer to secondary school between the ages of 10 and 16 years, and finish between the ages of 16 and 18 years, though there is considerable variation from country to country. The purpose of secondary education can be to give common knowledge, to prepare for higher education or to train directly in a profession.

Self-esteem – is a term used in psychology to reflect a person's overall evaluation or appraisal of his or her own worth. Self-esteem encompasses beliefs (for example, "I am competent") and emotions such as triumph, despair, pride and shame. Self-esteem can apply specifically to a particular dimension (for example, "I believe I am a good writer, and feel proud of that in particular") or have global extent (for example, "I believe I am a good person, and feel proud of myself in general"). Psychologists usually regard self-esteem as an enduring personality characteristic ("trait" self-esteem), though normal, short-term variations ("state" self-esteem) also exist. Synonyms or near-synonyms of self-esteem include: self-worth, self-regard, self-respect, self-love (which can express overtones of self-promotion), and self-integrity. Self-esteem is distinct from self-confidence and self-efficacy, which involve beliefs about ability and future performance.

Skill – an ability to do something well, especially because you have learned and practiced it. E.g. Reading and writing are two different skills. (The learned capacity to carry out pre-determined results often with the minimum outlay of time, energy, or both. (навык). The Russian word «навык» has the English equivalents: ‘skill’. E.g. practical skills. «Умение»: ‘ability’.

Social pedagogy – is an academic discipline concerned with theory and practice of holistic education and care. The term emphasizes that upbringing is not only the responsibility of parents but a shared responsibility of society. Social pedagogy is a 'function of society'– it reflects how a given society at a given time thinks about education and upbringing, about the relationship between the individual and society, and about social welfare for its marginalised members.

Study (verb) – to spend time reading, going to classes etc in order to learn about a subject, to watch and examine something over a period of time in order to find out more about it. (изучать). E.g. Goodall was studying the behaviour of gorillas in the wild.

Surdopedagogy – is a branch of defectology that is concerned with bringing-up and training children with hearing defects.

Teach (verb) – is the general word for helping a person or group of people to learn something.

Teaching – 1) the work and profession of a teacher. 2) the process of training (in different skills for jobs), educating people. (обучение) The term ‘teaching’ refers to the actions of a real live instructor to impart learning to the student.

Teaching methods – the types of principles and methods used for instruction. There are many types of teaching methods, depending on what information or skill the teacher is trying to convey. Class participation, demonstration, recitation, and memorization are some of the teaching methods being used. When a teacher is deciding on their method, they need to be flexible and willing to adjust their style according to their students. Student success in the classroom is largely based on effective teaching methods.

Teaching practice – the period of time during which students who are learning to be teachers practice teaching in a school; student teaching (AmE).

Train (verb) – you can train a person or a group of people, especially in particular skills and knowledge, up to a necessary level for a job.

Tutor (verb) – you tutor someone when they need help learning a particular subject. E.g tutoring in reading and ariphmetics.

Up-bringing usually includes the formation of the world outlook of a person, mental and ethic, labour, aesthetic and physical upbringing. (воспитание)

University – an educational institution at the highest level, where you study for a degree.

Visual learning – based on observation and seeing what is being learned.

Youth – 1) the time of life between childhood and adulthood (maturity); 2) a human being between the stages of childhood and adulthood.

Writing – is the representation of language in a textual medium through the use of a set of signs or symbols.

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