Phonetic Means of Stylistics

The main unit of the phonological level is a phoneme, the main function of which is to distinguish meaningful language elements. Unlike the units of the other language levels, which have the aspect of form and the aspect of content, phonemes have only the aspect of form. They are not double-sided signs. That’s why all the phonemes have the same function. Any phoneme can’t be stylistically marked in respect to any other phoneme. And as a result of it, expressive means are absent on the phonological level.

But in English there are ways of sound arrangement, the usage of which leads to the creation of some acoustic effects. In other words, on the phonetic level some stylistic devices can be created. Phonetic stylistic devices are some special sound combinations in their syntagmatic succession.

There are 3 main devices of sound arrangement in English: alliteration, assonance, and onomatopoeia.

Alliteration – is a deliberate repetition of similar consonant sounds in close succession. This phonetic stylistic device aims at imparting a melodic effect to the utterance.

In English alliteration is used in proverbs, sayings and set-phrases: E.g. with might and main, safe and sound, forget and forgive. The titles of some literary works are also based on alliteration: “School for Scandal”, by Sheridan, “Of Many Man” by Aldridge, “Silver Spoon”, “Swan Song” by Galsworthy, “Pride and Prejudice”.

Assonance is a deliberate repetition of the identical or similar vowels in close succession aiming at sound and sense arrangement of an utterance.

Usually assonance is used in combination with alliteration. E.g. I bring fresh showers for the thirsting flowers. (Shelly).

Once upon a midnight dreary while I pondered weak and weary. (Poe).

Onomatopoeia is a combination of speech sounds which aims at imitating sounds produced in nature (the sound of sea, wind, thunder), sounds produced by things (machines or tools, etc.), by people (sighing, laughter, patter of feet) and by animals. This device is often realized by means of alliteration. E.g. And the silken, sad, uncertain rustling of each purple curtain, thrilled me – filled me with fantastic terrors never felt before. (Poe). The repetition of the sound [s] imitates the sound of the rustling of the silk curtains.

Литература:

1. Арнольд И.В. Стилистика современного английского языка – Л., Просвещение, 1981. – С. 139-159.

2. Стилистика английского языка / Мороховский… с. 163-194.

Galperin I.R. Stylistics. – M: Higher School Publishing House, 1981. – P. 136-153; 157-177.

Lecture 5.

Stylistic Lexicology of the English Language

1. Working Definitions of Principal Concepts.

1. Every notional word of a natural language carries some definite information. This information may be basic, or denotative and additional or connotative.

The majority of words of the English language possesses only denotative information. So they are stylistically neutral: “man”, “woman”, “house”, “to give”, “to run”, “red”, “very”, etc. It does not mean that they cannot be used for stylistic purposes. When a word functions, it acquires new qualities depending on its position and function. Practically any word depending on the context may acquire connotation.

In the English language there are many words which possess not only basic information but additional one as well.

2. The additional information or connotative meaning may be of 4 types:

1. Functional-stylistic meaning is connected with the constant usage of the word in definite speech spheres or situations: “foe”, “maiden”, “realm” are mostly used in poetry; terms, nomenclature words are used in scientific prose style, official documents.

2. Evaluative meaning bears reference to things, phenomena or ideas through evaluation of the denotate: “out-of-date method”, “time-tested method”; “firm ~ obstinate ~ pig-headed”. One and the same denotate can be evaluated in different ways.

3. Emotional meaning expresses emotional attitude of the speaker to the denotate: “scoundrel”, “villain”, “jade”.

4. Metaphorical expressive-figurative meaning has reference not directly to things or phenomena of objective reality, but to the feelings and emotions of the speaker and is based on transference of meaning (speaking of a man – “log” – чурбан, “brick” – славный парень) – metaphorical meanings are always evaluative and figurative.

So, functional-stylistic meaning of a word is connected with a certain sphere of communication and is limited in usage. But there is no strict borderline between functional-stylistic meaning and other connotative meanings. Moreover, functional-stylistic meaning may serve a starting point for acquiring other connotative meanings.

II. Stylistic classification of the vocabulary of any language is a very complicated problem. The existing classifications are based on different criteria. Professor Y.M. Skrebnev draws a line of demarcation between neutral words and stylistically coloured words. He admits the arbitrary character of the majority of existing classifications, the impossibility of strict differentiation of linguistic units. In his opinion the traditional classifications of the vocabulary (Galperin’s classification, in particular), which can be found in handbooks on stylistics and lexicology are for the most part unsatisfactory, since their authors, copying or following one another, commit the same blunder: they intend their enumerations of word-groups to be as comprehensive as possible, disregarding the incompability of the constituents, such as archaisms and euphemisms or barbarisms and bookish words (Skrebnev, 2003, p. 52).

He proposes, in his turn, to take into account the social prestige of words, and to place words with positive connotations above the neutral layer of words, and words with negative connotations below it (p.53).

We cannot help seeing its too general character: it makes no provision for any gradation of the elevated or degraded lexical units, yet there must be different degrees in both. Professor A.N. Morohovsky believes that stylistic classification of the vocabulary should be based on a common principle – some common characteristics of the words in the given period of time. (synchronic approach). Besides, the principle question should be stylistically oriented. Any word like any other language unit exists in two aspects – in paradigmatics and in syntagmatics. That’s why we believe that there are two criteria that we use for classification of the VC. They are:

1. paradigmatic criterion means absence or presence of the additional information (evaluative, emotional, or expressive meaning);

2. syntagmatic criterion means the character of syntagmatic relations of the lexical or lexical-stylistic meaning of the word with the context.

Both criteria are interconnected. So, proceeding from these criteria (and using some N.D. Arutyunova’s ideas of the word content) we may divide all words of the English vocabulary into two groups:

1. Words having lexico-stylistic paradigm are characterized by

1. indirect reference to the object: “foe” (poetic) – “enemy” (neutral) – denotate.

2. subjective evaluative connotations;

3. the referential borders of their meaning are not strict – these words are of qualifying character, so they may be used with different references;

4. have synonyms;

5. may have antonyms.

To this group we refer: poetic diction; archaic words; barbarisms and foreign words; stylistic neologisms; slangisms; colloquial words; jargonisms (social and professional); dialect words; vulgarisms.

2. Words having no lexico-stylistic paradigm are characterized by:

1. direct reference to the object;

2. absence of subjective-evaluative connotations;

3. strict referential borders;

4. absence of synonyms or synonyms are of “denotative” character;

5. absence of antonyms.

Here we refer: stylistically neutral words, terms, nomenclature words; historic words; lexical neologisms, exotic words.

Words having lexico-stylistic paradigm are not homogeneous, they may enter the following oppositions:

C olloquial vocabulary Non-literary words General literary vocabulary Contemporary vocabulary

is opposed to

b ookish vocabulary literary words social or dialect elements, special vocabulary archaic vocabulary

However, the mentioned groups of words are not closed, they are intersecting – one and the same word may refer to two or more groups.