Stream of Consciousness

One of the major technical developments of twentieth-century fiction was the so-called stream of consciousness developed more or less independently by Virginia Woolf and James Joyce.

In this form, the writer attempts to depict the free flow of a character's thoughts through an equally free association of words, without any explicit connection. The reader must try to follow the characters as they drift through a succession of ideas, memories and sensations.

After the various narrative techniques developed over two centuries of novels (in Britain) the stream of consciousness may come as something of a shod. Non-native speakers of English are likely to have difficulty following this free association (not leas: because they come from a different culture, and speak a different language in which words and concepts have different resonance and associations). That said, even native speakers do not find Joyce particularly easy. Below is an example, from Ulysses to give some flavour of the technique.

(Leopold Bloom is making breakfast and is about to give some milk to the cat):

'Mrkgnao! the cat cried.

They call them stupid. They understand what we say better than we understand them. She understands all she wants to. Vindictive too. Wonder what I look like to her. Height of a tower? No, she can jump me.

Afraid of the chickens she is, he said mockingly. Afraid of the chookchooks. I never saw such a stupid pussens as the pussens.

Cruel. Her nature. Curious mice never squeal. Seem to like it.'

Now, here is what this passage might look like if all the connections were made explicit, along the lines of a traditional narrator.

'The cat miaowed. Mr Bloom thought: People call cats stupid, but in reality they understand what human beings say better than we understand them. This cat understands everything she wants to. She's vindictive too. I wonder what I look like to her. Do I seem very I high, like a tower? No, because (I know) this cat can jump up on me.

[...] But this cat is cruel. It's her nature to be cruel. It's tany that when she catches a mouse it doesn't squeal. Mice seem to like being caught.' This is a very simple example, and of course Joyce toned the technique into a powerfully expressive tool, capable of rendering subtle distinctions of character and mood.

9. Historical Background of American literature.

The Western Hemisphere had already been reached by courageous Scandinavian seafarers in the 10th century, but the actual discovery of America was made in the 16th century. In search of a shorter and safer trade route from Europe to Asia, Christopher Columbus landed on some island near Cuba in 1492 which he mistook for India. Later Amerigo Vespucci explored that coast and the new continent came to be called America after the name of its undoubted discoverer. The northern part of America was explored by Henry Hudson, the southern continent was explored by the Spaniards and the Portuguese. At first the only aim of the white adventurers was to get gold. It was at the beginning of the 17th century that colonization of America really started. Four European nations competed in that overseas expansion: Spain, Holland, France and England. Spain colonized the part of North America where Florida, Georgia and South Carolina now are. The Dutch founded colonies around the mouth of the Hudson River. Then further north, in Canada, the French founded their colony Qwebec. The English merchants organized a company for starting farming colonies in Virginia.

Colonization of America was due to the changing conditions in Europe. Hundreds of thousands of poor peasants who had lost their land in Britain and Germany were forced to leave their native countries and search for new homes across the Atlantic. In the 18th century a bitter struggle was fought between the 4 countries to determine to which country the American continent should belong. England took over the Spanish and Dutch settlements, defeated her rivals and became supreme ruler of the North-American continent.

But this New World had already been inhabited long before the Europeans came. The natives met the first Europeans with hospitality. They were eager to trade with the pale-faces, as they called the white men. But the Europeans in their greed for riches were ruthless. The way the Indians were treated is one of the darkest pages in the history of mankind.

At the beginning of the 17th century the colonists started bringing convicts from the prisons of Europe as labour, and also Negroes from Africa. During the following decades the Black population of America increased rapidly. The white masters treated their slaves with utmost cruelty to keep them in subjection. Not only were Negroes bought and sold. The shipping companies also organized the kidnapping of 12-13 year-old white children. Another type of white slaves imported to America were poor wretches from the cities and villages of Ireland, Scotland and other countries. These were poor artisants and peasants, unable to pay their passage to America, and ready to risk everything to save their families from starvation.

It was in the 18th century that America gave first prominent names of its writers. The first period in its literature may be called Enlightenment. American literature originated in journalism.