3. Present perfect

1.3.1. Form

Affirmative: I / you / we / they + have+V_ed/V₃ You have signed contracts.

he / she / it + has+V_ed/V₃ He has signed contracts.

Negative: I / you / we / they +have+not+V_ed/V₃ You have not signed contracts.

he / she / it + has+not+V_ed/V₃ He has not signed contracts.

Interrogative: Have I / you / we / they + V_ed/V₃ Have you signed contracts?

Has he / she / it + V_ed/V₃ Has he signed contracts?

Short answers: Yes, I have. No, I have not. (=haven’t)

Yes, he has. No, he has not. (=hasn’t)

For irregular verb forms, see Appendix 1.

1.3.2. Spelling rules for the base form+ED

• when a verb ends in a consonant + Y, the Y is changed into I+ED

e.g. copy - copied BUT: stay - stayed, NOT: staied (after a vowel -Y is unchanged)

• verbs ending in one vowel + one consonant, double the last consonant +ED:

e.g. stop – stopped

1.3.3. We use the Present Perfect

• to denote a completed action connected with the present period that is not finished (today, this morning, this week)

e.g. She has had dinner in the staff restaurant today.

• to express the activity that occurred at an indefinite time (when no time is stated)

e.g. He has sent an e-mail.

• to emphasize the number:

e.g. She has issued ten invoices since early morning.

• to talk about one’s life experience:

e.g. I have worked for two multinationals.

• with the following structures: this / it is the first / second / best/ the only / the worst …

e.g. This is the only time we have taken out a loan from the bank.

• after a superlative adjective:

e.g. It’s the best press conference we have ever visited.

1.3.4. Time expressions in the present perfect

Already, never, recently, lately, before, today, this month, lately, still, so far, up to now.

e.g. We have lately recruited highly-skilled staff.

Have you ever taken part in the annual shareholders’ meeting?

I have compiled many reports since I joined this company. (in object clauses the time is at the end)

KEEP IN MIND: ever, yet are generally used in negative and interrogative sentences:

e.g. Have you ever attended any business training courses?

The company hasn’t introduced a new business scheme for its employees yet.

4. Present perfect continuous

1.4.1. Form

Affirmative: I / you / we / they + have+been +V_ing

e.g. You have been signing contracts for 2 hours.

he / she / it + has+been+V_ing

e.g. He has been signing contracts for 2 hours.

Negative: I / you / we / they +have+not+been +V_ing

e.g. You have not been signing contracts for 2 hours.

he / she / it + has+not+been+V_ing

e.g. He has not been signing contracts for 2 hours.

Interrogative: Have I / you / we / they + been+V_ing

e.g. Have you been signing contracts for 2 hours?

Has he / she / it + been+V_ing

e.g. Has he been signing contracts for 2 hours?

Short answers: Yes, I have. No, I have not. (=haven’t)

Yes, he has. No, he has not. (=hasn’t)