Loss of Consonants in Clusters.

In many cases when a word ended in two consonants, the final one was lost.

Final [mb] was simplified to [m] in lamb, dumb, climb, comb.

Final [mn] is also simplified to [m] an damn, column, autumn.

In some cases, in a cluster of three consonants the middle one was dropped. For example: the cluster [stl] was simplified to [sl] in castle, rustle; the the cluster [stn] was simplified to [sn] in glisten, fasten; the cluster [ftn] was simplified to [fn] in often, saften.

Change of [d] to [ð] when Close to [r].

The consonant [d] becomes [ð] in the neighbourhood of [r] in the words in the words fader>father, moder>mother.

[j] merged with preceding consonant.

The last essential phonetic change in the sphere of consonants was merger of [j] with the preceding consonant. This happened after a stressed vowel. The change affected the clusters [sj, zj, tj, dj], and a few others. The change [sj>ʃ] occurred in the following words: Asia [eiʃə], Russia [‘r˄ʃə], etc.

In many words the spelling is -ti-.

This spelling, borrowed from French, denoted in French the cluster [sj] and was taken over into English. After the change [sj>ʃ] it came to denote the consonant []: nation, population, etc.

In a few words we find the spelling –xi- and –xu-; anxious [æŋkʃəs], luxury [l˄kʃəri].

In issue and tissue both pronunciations can be heard: [‘iʃu:] [‘is ju:], [‘tiʃu:] [tis:ju:] [tj] becomes [tʃ] in a number of words: question [‘kwestʃn], etc.

Loss of consonants in initial clusters

In certain cases the initial consonant of a cluster is lost. Thus, [k] and [g] are lost before [n] in knight, knee, gnat, gnaw. Initial [w] is lost before [r]: write, wrong, etc.

Lecture 12 Grammatical changes.

1. Morphology. The Substantive.

Development of Plural Forms.

In several substantives with final [f] or [Ɵ] alternation of the voiceless fricative with its voiced counterpart was eliminated. This is the case with roof (plural roofs and other words in – off; also with belief (beliefs), death (deaths).

However, with other substantives the alternation has been preserved, as in wife (wives), etc. With a few words two variants are possible: scarf (scarfs, scarves).

The alternation [f-v] begins to extend to the word handkerchief, whose second part is of French origin; alongside the plural form handkerchiefs a new form handkerchieves is occasionally used.

A few substantives have preserved their plural forms due to the weak declension or to mutation: ox (oxen), child-children, man (men), etc.

The case system

The two-case system which was typical of Chaucer’s language has been preserved in MnE. The sphere of the genitive case has been restricted to substantives denoting living being and also some time notions, e.g. year, month, week, day. With words denoting inanimate objects or abstract ideas the genitive has been generally replaced by the phrase “of + substantive”.

As far as written English is concerned, we must note the use of the apostrophe to denote the genitive case. In the genitive singular the apostrophe was first used about 1680.

The pronoun

Personal and Possessive

The ME forms of personal pronouns underwent little change in the MnE period. In the 16^th century distinction between nominative ye (in addressing one person) and objective you began to disappear. In the 17^th century ye finally became archaic.

In the neuter pronoun vacillation between hit and it continued during the 16^th century. By the end of the century hit disappeared altogether.

Reflexive

Reflexive pronouns developed in MnE from corresponding ME forms without any particular changes.

Demonstrative

In MnE demonstrative pronouns acquired the following forms: this(these), that(those).