МИНИСТЕРСТВО ОБРАЗОВАНИЯ И НАУКИ РФ

БЕЛОВСКИЙ ИНСТИТУТ (ФИЛИАЛ)

Государственного образовательного учреждения

Высшего профессионального образования

«КЕМЕРОВСКИЙ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫЙ УНИВЕРСИТЕТ» (БИФ Кем ГУ)

Учебно-методическое пособие

по дисциплине

Английский язык

для студентов специальности

080502 «Экономика и управление на предприятии»

БЕЛОВО 2010

Составитель: к.ф.н. Шабалина А.Н.

Учебно-методическое пособие по английскому языку для студентов специальности 080502 «Экономика и управление на предприятии» / А.Н. Шабалина. – Беловский институт (филиал) Кемеровского государственного университета. – Белово, 2010. – 104 с.

Пособие предназначено для студентов 1, 2 курсов, обучающихся по специальности 080502 «Экономика и управление на предприятии». Ориентировано на формирование навыков перевода специализированного текста с преобладанием экономической терминологии, что обусловливает специфику подачи лексического и грамматического материала, а именно, акцентирование особенностей перевода грамматических конструкций.

Пособие содержит тексты с оригинальной письменной английской речью; специально подобранные упражнения для отработки навыков перевода лексических и грамматических конструкций, специфичных для экономических текстов; вопросы к зачетам, варианты контрольных работ, экзаменационные темы и справочный грамматический материал.

Пояснительная записка

Современная экономическая ситуация требует от выпускников высших учебных заведений мобильности и гибкой приспосабливаемости к меняющимся условиям рынка руда. Работодатели, принимая на работу молодых специалистов, не ограничиваются требованием только профессиональных знаний, все более важным и значимым становится владение английским языком, а именно, способность к чтению и пониманию специализированной иностранной литературы, умение устанавливать контакты с англо-говорящими партнерами, развивать связи, заключать контракты, а при необходимости и работать в англоязычной среде.

Предлагаемый курс направлен на формирование умений грамотного перевода текстов как страноведческого, художественного, так и экономического содержания (при приоритете последнего), на развитие навыков монологической речи личного и профессионального содержания. Занятия организованы таким образом, чтобы максимальным образом облегчить восприятие и запоминание новой информации, при этом учитывается разноуровневый стартовый характер подготовки обучаемых студентов:

• Приложения содержат информацию, которая известна студентам с высоким первоначальным уровнем подготовки, и которой в процессе обучения должны овладеть студенты с невысоким уровнем языковой подготовки.

• Подача грамматического материала предполагает повторение изученного в рамках школьной программы, акцентируя внимание обучаемых на особенностях перевода рассматриваемых лексических единиц и грамматических конструкций.

• Предлагаемые упражнения содержат избыточный материал для практики перевода, что позволяет студентам с разным уровнем подготовки в равной степени ознакомиться с изучаемой конструкцией при варьировании лексического контекста.

Тексты для чтения на занятиях представляют собой заимствования из современной английской и американской экономической литературы, а потому дают возможность познакомиться с реальной письменной английской речью. Материал грамматических упражнений также максимально приближен к оригинальной английской речи.

Структура занятия предполагает четыре этапа: 1) знакомство с грамматическим/ лексическим материалом, особенностями его перевода, 2) отработку навыков перевода под руководством преподавателя на материале предлагаемых упражнений, 3) самостоятельную работу студентов с применением полученных знаний и навыков с последующей проверкой результатов работы, 4) осмысление прочитанного и изложение изученной экономической темы в рамках монологического высказывания. Материалы пособия содержат примерные тексты рассказов по теме, которые призваны помочь студентам со слабым уровнем первоначальной языковой подготовки сформулировать свои мысли, и не являются обязательными для воспроизведения.

Вопросы, предлагаемые к зачету, а также задания контрольных работ заставляют студентов обратить особое внимание на специфику перевода английского предложения: важность знания особенностей перевода различных грамматических и синтаксических конструкций. Эксплуатируемый в пособии акцент на практическую грамматику позволяет студенту уйти от порочной практики «пословного» перевода, дает инструмент для того, чтобы «подняться» над предложением и текстом, осмыслить содержание прочитанного и изложить его на русском языке красиво, правильно и логично с точки зрения правил русского языка.

Тексты контрольных работ развивают способности перевода как страноведческого, художественного, так и экономического содержания, одновременно подготавливая студента к экзамену, который предполагает экспликацию экзаменуемым умения понимать профессионально специализированную терминологию, наряду со способностью передать содержание текста с разговорной и общеупотребительной лексикой.

Темы монологических высказываний, вынесенные для экзаменационного контроля, требуют от студента активного владения как общеразговорной, так и специализированной терминологической лексикой в рамках изученного материала и дают возможность свободно рассказать о себе, своей семье, профессиональной деятельности, основных экономических проблемах при общении с деловыми партнерами.

Семестр I

Практическое занятие № 1.

План

1. Рассмотрение особенностей перевода глагола to be. Закрепление полученных знаний на практике: выполнение упражнений.

2. Рассмотрение особенностей перевода номинативной цепочки. Развитие навыка перевода конструкции, специфичной для английского языка.

3. Обзор видовременных форм английского глагола в действительном залоге. Практика и специфика перевода различных грамматических форм.

I. Особенности перевода английских предложений, содержащих глагол to be на русский язык:

1. to be не представлен в переводе:

She is a good student.

The children are in the yard.

2. to be передается при помощи указательного местоимения это:

Economics is a science that analyzes what, how and for whom society produces.

Market is the process by which production and consumption are coordinated through prices.

3. В конструкции «to be + OF + существительное» to be переводится при помощи слов имеет, представляет:

This book on economics is of great interest.

Knowledge of foreign languages is of great importance to everybody.

4. После слов aim, purpose, target, problem глагол to be переводится оборотом состоит в том, чтобы; заключается в том, чтобы:

The aim of this book is to form a theory f the role of government in economic life.

The central economic problem is to reconcile the conflict between people's unlimited demands with society's ability to produce goods and services.

5. В сочетании с последующим глаголом в неопределенной форме глагол to be переводится должен, необходим, предназначен для:

The market is to decide how much to produce.

Prices are to regulate production and consumption in a market economy.

6. to be в конструкции there is (are) переводится существует (-ют):

In a free market economy there is not any government regulation of the consumption, production and exchange of goods.

There are some factors influencing demand for a good.

Задание 1. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на особенности перевода глагола to be на русский язык:

1. Exports are goods and services sold to other countries.

2. When prices are not so high as the equilibrium price, there is excess demand (shortage).

3. Demand is the quantity of a good that buyers wish to buy.

4. The study of economics is of great use even to those students who have no wish to become professional economists.

5. What is the central economic problem of a society?

6. Professional marketing services are of great value to producers and sellers.

7. The firm is to start producing the new equipment.

8. Supply is the quantity of a good that sellers wish to sell.

9. The economist is to foresee the market price rise.

10. Economic statistics is of interest to economic policy decision-makers.

11. The problem of the consumer is to choose the particular goods and services within the limits imposed by his budget.

12. Economic theory is the part of the study of economics that examines and explains how the economic system is affected by man's behaviour, by nature, markets and governments.

13. There are a lot of factors in agriculture that must be assumed as risks by the farmers.

14. The aim of macroeconomics is to examine and explain economic facts for the total nation, such as the total money supply, production, consumption, etc.

15. Profit is the revenue from selling the output minus the costs of inputs used.

16. Harvest failures (неурожаи) are the most important reason for changes in agricultural product supply, but there are other reasons as well.

17. When there is a harvest failure, the producers' supply will decrease.

18. Excess supply is a situation in which, at a certain price, the quantity of a good demanded by buyers is less than the quantity supplied by producers.

II. Особенности перевода номинативной цепочки, состоящей из нескольких существительных, прилагательных, а иногда включающей и причастие, состоит в том, что:

1. перевод начинается с последнего в "цепочке" слова;

2. предстоящие ему слова являются его определениями и могут переводиться на русский язык либо прилагательным, либо именем существительным в родительном падеже.

market economy – рыночная экономика

government restrictions – государственные ограничения

economics study – изучение экономики

demand information – сведения о спросе

farm economics expert – специалист по экономике сельского хозяйства

oil price restriction – ограничение цен на нефть

farm produce price increase – повышение цен на сельскохозяйственную продукцию

Задание 2. Переведите следующие словосочетания, не забывая об особенностях перевода номинативной цепочки:

А. weather conditions, sea captain, land owner, gold seekers, trade company, language monuments, business environment, market place, log cabin, village postmaster, law books, state legislature, morning walks, game season, plate porters, uniform appearance, Sunday editions, gang fights, gossip columns, court musicians, love affairs, string quar­tets, art mu­seum.

В. government office, service price regulation, government planning, price mechanism, resource allocation, market mechanism, price level, production and consumption decisions, economy planning, economic policy decision-makers, resource allocation decisions, demanded quantity, supplied quantity, market supply change, coffee supply restrictions, land quality.

III. Приведенная ниже таблица предлагает обзор видовременных форм английского глагола в действительном залоге. Каждый квадрат содержит информацию об одной из 12 видовременных форм: ее образовании, ситуации употребления, обстоятельственных словах, которые свойственны данному грамматическому времени, а также примеры, наглядно иллюстрирующие рассматриваемые категории.

Так, информацию о Present Simple следует читать: образуется при помощи первой формы глагола (V₁), а в третьем лице единственного числа к глаголу добавляется окончание -(e)s. Вопросительная и отрицательная формы (? –) образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола do, который соответственно в 3-м лице ед. ч. имеет форму does. Present Simple употребляется при необходимости описать действие, которое происходит регулярно, либо при констатации универсальных истин.

Present Progressive образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола to be в его формах am, is, are и смыслового глагола с окончанием -ing. Present Progressive употребляется при необходимости описать действие, которое происходит сейчас, в момент речи либо ближайшее запланированное будущее действие.

Past Simple образуется при помощи окончания -ed правильного глагола или второй формы неправильного глагола (V₂). Список неправильных глаголов приводится в Приложении № 2. Вопросительная и отрицательная формы (? –) образуются при помощи вспомогательного глагола did. При употреблении вспомогательного глагола did в предложении смысловой глагол ставится в первую форму. Past Simple употребляется при необходимости описать действие, которое однократно произошло или многократно повторялось в прошлом.

Future Perfect образуется при помощи вспомогательного глагола shall (для первого лица: местоимения I – я, we – мы) / will (для всех остальных случаев), вспомогательного глагола have и третьей формы глагола (V₃). Future Perfect употребляется при необходимости описать действие, которое совершится до другого события в будущем.

ACTIVE VOICE

(ДЕЙСТВИТЕЛЬНЫЙ ЗАЛОГ)

Задание 3. Используя информацию о правилах образования грамматических форм настоящего, прошедшего и будущего времен, переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, указав, в какой видовременной форме употреблен глагол-сказуемое анализируемого предложения:

1. He will have been flying for 3 hours by the time the stewardess serves dinner.

2. Did you see the news on television last night?

3. My brother reads newspapers every day.

4. She will be planting roses at 4 o’clock tomorrow.

5. I was walking home when I met Dave.

6. She lives in London, she doesn't live in Moscow.

7. I shall have cooked dinner by 9 o’clock tomorrow morning.

8. Does your uncle go to work every day?

9. I didn’t go to the cinema because I had already seen the film.

10. This time tomorrow they will be sitting in the train on their way to Chicago.

11. I am working in the garden now.

12. He will come at eight in the evening.

13. She had been walking for a long time before she found their house.

14. Let’s meet at the station at 5 o’clock. – OK. I shall be waiting for you there.

15. Steve, what are you doing? - I am playing the piano now.

16. We shall go to the country next summer.

17. I have not been to China yet.

18. They had read the book by the end of the week.

19. My son will not meet you at the station.

20. He came up to the door, unlocked it and pushed it with his leg.

21. How many books on History have you read?

22. To whom is she writing a letter? – She is writing a letter to her sister.

23. Bob has been working at this factory for 15 years and he is not going to retire.

24. We have not seen him for three days already.

25. If the price is higher than the equilibrium one, it will be falling till the equilibrium price is reached and there is no more surplus left.

Практическое занятие № 2.

План

1. Чтение и перевод текста «Market and Command Economies».

2. Составление темы «My Family and Me».

I. Прочитайте и переведите следующий текст на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода глагола to be, различных видовременных форм глагола и номинативной цепочки:

Market and Command Economies¹

Economics is a science that analyses what, how, and for whom society produces. The central economic problem is to reconcile the conflict between people's unlimited demands with society's ability to produce goods and services.

In industrial Western countries markets are to allocate resources. The market is the process by which production and consumption are coordinated through prices.

In a command economy, a central planning office makes decisions on what, how, and for whom to produce. Economy cannot rely entirely on command, but there was extensive planning in many Soviet bloc countries. A free market economy has no government intervention. Resources are allocated entirely through markets.

Modern economies in the West are mixed and rely mainly on the market but with a large dose of government intervention. The optimal level of government intervention remains a problem which is of interest to economists.

The degree of government restrictions differs greatly between countries that have command economies and countries that have free market economies. In the former, resources are allocated by central government planning. In the latter, there is not any government regulation of the consumption, production, and exchange of goods. Between the two main types lies the mixed economy where market and government are both of importance.

II. Основываясь на приведенных ниже вариантах темы My Family and Me, составьте рассказ о себе и своей семье.

Примерный вариант рассказа неработающего, несемейного человека:

My name is … . I am … years old. I study at Belovo Institute (branch) of Kemerovo State University. I am a first -year student at Economics faculty. I am going to be an economist. At present I don’t work. I dedicate all my time to studies. My hobby is listening to music, dancing, playing football. My family is not large: my mother, my father (my brother, my sister) and me. My mother’s name is … . She is … years old. She woks at school (hospital, railway station). She is a teacher (doctor, housewife). She likes cooking and gardening. My father’s name is … . He is … years old. He woks at mine “Kolmogorovskaya”. He is a driver (miner, militiaman). His hobby is watching TV and reading newspapers. We spend a lot of time together: we go shopping together, watch TV and have meals together. We go to see our relatives and friends together. Our family is friendly and united.

Примерный вариант рассказа работающего, семейного человека:

My name is … . I am … years old. I study at Belovo Institute (branch)

Предлагаемые для чтения и перевода тексты взяты из учебника Е.В. Глушенкова, Е.Н. Комарова «Английский язык для студентов экономических специальностей», М., 2005.

of Kemerovo State University. I am a first-year student at Economics faculty. I am going to be an economist. At present I work at Company “…”, (school, library, …). I am a shop-assistant (secretary, accountant, …). I dedicate all my spare time to studies. My hobby is listening to music, dancing, playing football. My family is large: my husband, my daughter, two sons and me. My husband’s name is … . He is … years old. He woks at school (open-cast mine, hospital, railway station). He is a teacher (miner, doctor, militiaman, driver). His hobbies are hunting, fishing and gardening. My daughter’s name is … . She is … years old. She goes to kindergarten (school). She likes drawing, playing badminton (ping-pong), watching cartoons. My sons’ names are … . They are … and … years old. They go to kindergarten (school). The eldest like to play computer games and read books. The youngest is fond of music (sports: football, basketball, hockey). We spend a lot of time together: we like to travel by car in our region and neighbor-regions. Sometimes we travel by train to see our relatives and friends. Sometimes we travel by plane to the capital of our country and abroad.

Практическое занятие № 3.

План

1. Рассмотрение особенностей образования и перевода настоящего и прошедшего причастий. Практика перевода.

2. Рассмотрение особенностей образования степеней сравнения прилагательных и специфики перевода сравнительных конструкций. Закрепление полученных знаний на практике: перевод предложений, содержащих степени сравнения.

3. Рассмотрение особенностей образования видовременных форм английского глагола в страдательном залоге. Практика и специфика перевода различных грамматических форм.

I. Причастие I – причастие настоящего времени действительного залога образуется от инфинитива глагола прибавлением к нему суффикса -ing. Например: read + -ing = reading

Если настоящее причастие выполняет в предложении функцию определения, то на русский язык оно переводится причастием с окончани­ем -щий. Например:

a reading boy – читающий мальчик

a singing girl – поющая девочка

Если настоящее причастие выполняет в предложении функцию обстоятельства, то на русский язык оно переводится деепричастием на -ая. Например: Reading the new text the student didn’t make any mistakes. – Читая новый текст, студент не сделал ни одной ошибки.

Причастие II – причастие прошедшего времени страдательного залога, у правильных глаголов образуется от инфинитива при помощи суффикса -ed, у неправильных глаголов совпадает с третьей формой.

Прошедшее причастие в предложении выполняет функцию определения и на русский язык переводится причастиями с окончаниями -ный, -мый, -тый. Например: produced – производимый, произведенный; written – написанный

В предложении причастие II может употребляться либо в препозиции (перед определяемым существительным), либо в постпозиции (после определяемого существительного), образуя вместе с уточняющими его словами причастный оборот. Например:

Customers can get information of all the produced goods in the catalogue. – Клиенты могут получить все сведения о производимых товарах в этом каталоге.

The goods produced by the company are in great demand. – Товары, производимые этой компанией, пользуются большим спросом.

Задание 1. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на особенности перевода причастий:

1. Governments intervene in economies controlling the supply of money, limiting monopolies and helping private industries.

2. An improvement in technology will increase the supply of a good, in­creasing the quantity supplied at each possible price.

3. Governments regulate economic activities imposing some restrictions.

4. The governments can influence for whom goods are produced, taking income away from some people and giving it to others.

5. The high price for a good is the market mechanism telling suppliers it is now time to increase production.

6. The developing countries hope that the industrial countries will raise imports from the less developed countries imposing tariffs on imports from other industrial countries.

7. Income is money of all kinds coming in regularly to a person, family or organization.

8. Firms producing computers act as buyers in the markets for the services of computer programmers.

9. Reducing our imports, we decrease the exports of others.

10. At prices above equilibrium we have a situation known as excess sup­ply, or surplus.

11. Exports are goods and services sold to other countries.

12. In free market economies changes in price are never results of regulations imposed by governments.

13. Imposing some restrictions on food prices, governments make it possible for all the people to buy enough food.

14. Knowing that their resources are limited, people make a decision how to allocate them in the best possible way (наилучшим образом).

15. The government can regulate monopolies controlling the prices or supplying the products itself.

16. Excess supply is a situation in which, at a certain price, the quantity of a good demanded by buyers is less than the quantity supplied by producers.

17. The economist is interested in the role of costs and profits affecting the firm's supply decisions and the allocation of resources for producing particular goods.

II. Прилагательные и наречия образуют сравнительную и превосходную степени сравнения. Сравнительная степень употребляется при сопоставлении двух предметов, характеристик и указывает на преобладании какого-либо качества в одном из них по сравнению с другим. Употребление превосходной степени позволяет выделить один предмет из многих ему подобных на основании качества, присущего ему в наибольшей степени.

Односложные прилагательные образуют степени сравнения при помощи суффиксов -er, -est, многосложные – путем добавления слов more, most к основе прилагательного. Например: large – larger – the largest; effective – more effective – the most effective. Существуют супплетивные формы: good – better – the best; bad – worse – the worst; little – less – the least; many – more – the most; much – more – the most; far – farther – the farthest. Запомните перевод следующих сравнительных конструкций:

such as – такой как

as … as – такой же … как

as … as possible – как можно …

not so … as – не такой … как

as to – что касается

the same as – такой же как

Задание 2. Переведите следующие предложения, обращая внимание на особенности перевода сравнительной и превосходной степеней прилагательных:

1. At low prices the demanded quantity is higher.

2. Profits are the highest at the output level at which marginal cost is equal to the marginal revenue.

3. Mrs Burke was much younger and more good-looking than my mother.

4. We had the loveliest day. Father and the boys fished, the girls met quite a lot of peo­ple.

5. Mother said it had been the most wonderful day in her life.

6. William Shakespeare, the greatest and most famous of English writers, was born in Stratford-on-Avon.

7. Lawrence Washington, George's eldest brother, had married a Miss Fairfax, whose father lived in Virginia and was a relative of Lord Fairfax, a rich land owner of the col­ony.

8. A few years later the American colonies had a war with England.

9. The farther north we go, the hotter it gets. In bad times, and in the driest parts, many animals may die for want of water.

10. New York is the largest city in the United States and one of the largest cities in the world.

11. Wall Street in Manhattan is the most important banking centre in the world.

12. You can see the newest plays and shows on Broadway.

13. The oldest place-names in the United States are, of course, Indian.

14. One of the most striking features of English life is the self-discipline and courtesy of people of all classes.

15. "Yes, Mr. Weston" or "No, Mrs. Baker" is more common in a similar situation in the North or West.

16. I would say that London offers the widest range of ethnic cuisine in the world; some are better than others, and you can eat extremely well here.

17. Beethoven was opening up what he called a "new path", a more expressive and dramatic musical language, richer in emotion and deeper in thought than the other music of his time.

18. During the last period, Beethoven's break with the past was sharper than ever.

19. For each level of output, the marginal costs are lower as the input price decreases

III. Глагол-сказуемое в действительном залоге описывает действие, выполняемое подлежащим. Глагол-сказуемое в страдательном залоге описывает действие, выполняемое над подлежащим. Общая формула образования страдательного залога выражается формулой to be + V₃ подстановка которой в формулы образования видовременных форм английского глагола (см. вышеприведенную таблицу) позволяет определить формы настоящего, прошедшего и будущего времени для каждого конкретного случая. Таким образом, для образования страдательного залога настоящего простого времени мы используем формулу am/ is/ are + V₃, страдательного залога настоящего продолженного времени – am/ is/ are being + V₃, страдательного залога настоящего завершенного времени – have/ has been + V₃, страдательного залога прошедшего простого времени – was/ were + V₃, страдательного залога прошедшего продолженного времени – was/ were being + V₃, страдательного залога прошедшего завершенного времени – had been + V₃, страдательного залога будущего простого времени – shall/ will be + V₃, страдательного залога будущего завершенного – shall/ will have been + V₃. Заметим, что грамматическим изменениям подвергается лишь вспомогательный глагол to be, в то время как смысловой глагол всегда остается в третьей форме.

Рассмотрим видовременные формы глагола to buy:

Present Simple Passive – am/ is/ are bought

Present Progressive Passive – am/ is/ are being bought

Present Perfect Passive – have/ has been bought

Past Simple Passive – was/ were bought

Past Progressive Passive – was/ were being bought

Past Perfect Passive – had been bought

Future Simple Passive – shall/ will be bought

Future Perfect Passive – shall/ will have been bought

Задание 3. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, указав, в какой видовременной форме употреблен глагол-сказуемое анализируемого предложения:

1. Production and consumption are coordinated through prices.

2. Resource allocation decisions are being made every day in every city.

3. Goods are produced on farms or in factories. Goods of the both groups are consumed by the people who buy them.

4. Much coffee was bought by the Brazilian government from farmers for export.

5. The ideas of Adam Smith have been studied by economists for over two hundred years.

6. A high level of production will be achieved if we allocate enough resources to agriculture.

7. The ideas of Karl Marx had been studied and discussed by economists for over sixty years before Russians put them in practice.

8. Goods and services for the army will have been ordered by the government by the end of the year.

9. The prices and levels of consumption of different goods and services were being monitored by the economists for several years.

10. Economic activity is regulated by the government through restrictions and regulations.

11. The increase in the number of people in the world is followed at present by an increase in per capita consumption.

12. A government planning office decides what will be produced, how it will be produced, and for whom it will be produced.

Практическое занятие № 4.

План

1. Чтение и перевод текста «Demand and Supply».

2. Презентация темы «My Family and Me».

I. Прочитайте и переведите следующий текст на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода причастий, степеней сравнения прилагательных и видовременных форм глагола в страдательном залоге:

Demand and Supply

Demand is the quantity of a good that buyers wish to buy at each price1. Other things equal, at low prices the demanded quantity is higher.

Supply is the quantity of a good that sellers wish to sell at each price. Other things equal, when prices are high, the supplied quantity is high as well.

The market is in equilibrium when the price regulates the quantity supplied by producers and the quantity demanded by consumers. When prices are not so high as the equilibrium price, there is excess demand (shortage) raising the price. At prices above the equilibrium price, there is excess supply (surplus) reducing the price.

There are some factors influencing demand for a good, such as the prices of other goods, consumer incomes and some others.

An increase in the price of a substitute good (or a decrease in the price of a complement good) will at the same time raise the demanded quantity.

As consumer income is increased, demand for a normal good will also increase but demand for an inferior good will decrease. A normal good is a good for which demand increases when incomes rise. An inferior good is a good for which demand falls when incomes rise.

As to supply, some factors are assumed as constant. Among them are technology, the input price, as well as degree of government regulation. An improvement in technology is as important for increasing the supplied quantity of a good as a reduction in input prices.

Government regulates demand and supply, imposing ceiling prices (maximum prices) and floor prices (minimum prices) and adding its own demand to the demand of the private sector.

II. Студентам предоставляется возможность рассказать о себе и своей семье на английском языке (за основание берется примерный текст рассказа, предложенный на втором занятии).

Практическое занятие № 5.

План

1. Рассмотрение специфики значений и особенностей перевода модальных глаголов. Практика перевода английского глагола, выражающего отношение к действию.

2. Количественные и порядковые числительные. Особенности прочтения дат, простых и десятичных дробей.

3. Составление темы «Economic Systems».

I. Модальные глаголы характеризуются следующими основными особенностями:

1. не называют действие, а выражают отношение к действию;

2. представляют группу «дефективных» глаголов, т.к. не образуют формы прошедшего, будущего времени и формы страдательного залога;

3. не образуют неличные формы (инфинитив, причастие, герундий);

4. последующий глагол употребляется без частицы to;

5. в 3-м лице, единственного числа времени Present Simple не добавляют окончание -(e)s;

6. вопросительную и отрицательную формы образуют без помощи вспомогательного глагола.

Рассмотрим каждый глагол отдельно. Глагол can употребляется при необходимости обозначить: 1) физические и умственные способности: He can read English. – Он умеет читать по-английски. Can you swim? – Ты умеешь плавать? She cannot walk quickly, she is too young. – Она не умеет быстро ходить, она еще слишком маленькая. 2) реальную возможность: The factory can produce 200 fridges this year. – Фабрика может произвести 200 холодильников в этом году.

Глагол can имеет форму прошедшего времени could: I could speak Chinese when I was a child and lived with my parents in China. – Я умел говорить по-китайски, будучи ребенком, в то время мы жили с родителями в Китае. Глагол can имеет заместитель be able to для образования форм будущего времени: She will be able to pass the exam in two days. – Она сможет сдать экзамен через два дня.

Глагол may употребляется при необходимости указать на: 1) разрешение производить действие: May I come in? – Можно войти? You may use my text-book. – Можешь воспользоваться моим учебником. 2) предполагаемую возможность действия: He may come. – Возможно, он придет.

Глагол may форму прошедшего времени might: She might translate the text yesterday using my text-book and dictionary. – Она могла перевести текст вчера, воспользовавшись моим учебником и словарем. Глагол may имеет заместитель be allowed to для образования форм будущего времени: They won’t be allowed to enter the restaurant as they are not properly dressed. – Им не позволят войти в ресторан, так как они не одеты соответственным образом.

Глагол must употребляется в случае, когда говорящий: 1) осознает свой долг, необходимость выполнения действия: I must help my friends. – Я должен помочь моим друзьям. 2) отдает приказ, распоряжение: You must do exercise 27 at home. – Вы должны выполнить дома 27 упражнение.

Глагол have to представляет исключение среди модальных глаголов, т.к. может образовывать различные формы настоящего, прошедшего и будущего времен, а также неличные формы глагола (инфинитив, причастие, герундий); следующий за ним в предложении глагол употребляется с частицей to; в 3-м лице, единственного числа времени Present Simple глагол have to имеет окончание -s; вопросительную и отрицательную формы образует с помощью вспомогательного глагола соответствующего грамматического времени.

Глагол have to употребляется в случае, когда говорящий желает подчеркнуть отсутствие желания выполнять действие: субъект предложения вынужден что-либо делать в связи со сложившимися обстоятельствами. I have to go to that conference: everybody else is ill, so I will be the only representative of our project. – Мне придется поехать на эту конференцию, все заболели, и я буду единственным представителем нашего проекта.

Глагол be to употребляется при необходимости подчеркнуть существующую договоренность по поводу выполняемого действия, наличие плана, в соответствии с которым действие будет осуществлено. I am to meet Mrs. Burke at the station. – Я должен встретить миссис Берк на станции. The factory is to produce 200 fridges this year. – Фабрика должна произвести 200 холодильников в этом году.

Глагол should употребляется в случае, когда говорящий желает дать совет, высказать рекомендацию по поводу действия: You should go and see this movie. – Тебе следует пойти и посмотреть этот фильм.

Глагол ought to употребляется при необходимости обозначить: 1) нравственные, моральные нормы, принятые в обществе: Children must help their parents. – Дети должны помогать своим родителям. 2) то, что логично и правильно сделать в данной ситуации: You have a toothache, you ought to go to the dentist. – У тебя болит зуб, ты должен пойти к зубному.

Глагол need употребляется при необходимости подчеркнуть необходимость выполнения действия: We need to buy extra food as we have more guests coming. – Нам нужно купить еще еды, так как подъедут еще гости.

Задание 1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, обращая особое внимание на значения модальных глаголов:

1. Government regulations should be in the interests of society.

2. The buyers have to reconcile what they want to do and what the market will allow them to do.

3. We ought to answer the question what should be done now to prepare managers on whom we'll be able to rely in the year 2010.

4. A foreign company in Great Britain must give certain information about itself to the government offices. It must also write its name and country of registration on all its documents.

5. The consumer has to solve the problem of choice.

6. The producer should make a decision how to reduce inputs.

7. Not all partners in a firm must take an active part in management.

8. He ought to take a more active part in decision making on the exports strategy of the company.

9. The consumer is to maintain a given level of utility.

10. OPEC (Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries) member countries are to sell oil at the agreed price.

11. Governments, through their control of the quantity of money in the economy, can influence business activity.

12. As the price of one good rises, the consumer has to buy another good, whose price has not risen.

13. The limited supply of energy in some sectors of the US economy is to lead to changes in the economic situation as a whole.

14. Making a decision, the economist should rely on all the information that he can find.

15. You ought to have the firm re-registered as soon as possible or you may have trouble.

16. If the consumer wants to maintain a constant maximum utility and at the same time obtain more of a good, he should decide the consumption of which other good has to be reduced.

17. Budget constraint means that your expenditures for all the goods con­sumed must be equal to your income.

18. Opportunity costs should be counted for labour and financial capital used.

19. As to price ceilings, without government regulation and organization they may lead to "black market" as well as other social and economic problems.

20. Complement goods are those goods which you cannot use one without the other, such as cars and petrol. As the price for petrol rises, the demand for cars reduces.

21. Only when demand equals supply, people can buy or sell as much as they want.

II. Количественные и порядковые числительные приведены в Приложении № 3. При прочтении простых дробей в числителе произносится количественное числительное, а в знаменателе – порядковое: 1/ 4 – one-fourth. Если числитель больше 1, то количественное числительное в знаменателе произносится во множественном числе: 2/ 3 – two-thirds. В английских текстах в десятичных дробях после целых чисел ставится точка, которая произносится point: 1.53 – one point fifty three. До 2000 года при прочтении даты читаются как одно число две первые цифры, и две последние: 1872 – eighteen seventy-two. Начиная с 2000 года мы читаем: 2009 – two thousand nine.

Задание 2. Прочитайте и переведите следующие предложения, обращая особое внимание на числительные и правильное произнесение дат:

1. My birthday is on the 23 of April.

2. In the early 1950s people ate less than in 1970s.

3. The meeting took place on 17 of June, 1987.

4. The 3.8 billion people lived in the world in the early 1970s.

5. We shall celebrate our anniversary on the 1 of December.

6. The production of the shoe factory increased by 1.7%.

7. This year the quantity of the computers sold decreased by 2/ 5.

8. We should prepare managers now on whom we shall be able to rely in 2010.

III. Основываясь на материале текста «Market and Command Economies» составьте тему «Economic Systems», определив экономику как науку, обозначив основную задачу данной науки и основной инструмент координирования цен.

Примерный вариант рассказа о трех вариантах организации экономических систем:

Economics is a science that analyzes what, how and for whom society produces. The central economic problem is to reconcile people’s unlimited demands with society’s ability to produce goods and services. Market is the process by which production and consumption are coordinated through prices.

In a command economy government planning office makes decisions on what, how and for whom to produce. Resources are allocated by central government planning. Free market economies have no government intervention. Resources are allocated entirely through markets. Mixed economies rely mainly on market but with a large doze of government regulation.

Практическое занятие № 6.

План

1. Чтение и перевод текста «Theory of Demand».

2. Составление темы «Theory of Demand».

3. Бессоюзное присоединение определительных придаточных предложений. Особенности первода.

4. Презентация темы «Economic Systems».

I. Прочитайте и переведите следующий текст на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода модальных глаголов:

Theory of Demand

Consumer demand is the quantities of a particular good that an individual consumer wants and is able to buy as the price varies, if all other factors influencing demand are constant.

That is, consumer demand is the relationship between the quantity demanded for the good and its price. The factors assumed constant are prices of other goods, income, and a number of noneconomic factors, such as social, physiological, demographic characteristics of the consumer in question (о котором идет речь).

The theory of demand is based on the assumption that the consumer having budget constraint seeks to reach the maximum possible level of utility, that is, to maximize utility, but he usually prefers to obtain more rather than less. The consumer has to solve the problem of choice. Provided he is to maintain a given level of utility, increases in the quantity of one good must be followed by reductions in the quantity of the other good. The consumer has to choose the specific goods within the limits imposed by his budget.

The concept of marginal utility is of great importance for solving the utility maximization problem. The marginal utility of a good is the additional utility obtained from consuming an additional unit of the good in question. The marginal utility from consuming a good decreases as more of that good is consumed. The income should be allocated among all possible choices so that the marginal utility per dollar of expenditure on each good is equal to the marginal utility per dollar of expenditure on every other good.

A price increase will result in a reduction in the quantity demanded. This relationship between the quantity demanded of a good and its price is called the law of demand. As the marginal utility from each additional unit of the good consumed decreases, the consumer will want to buy more of this good only if its price is reduced.

Market demand is the quantities of a good that all consumers in a particular market want and are able to buy as price varies and as all other factors are assumed constant. Market demand depends not only on the factors affecting individual demands, but also on the number of consumers in the market. The law of demand also works with market demand.

II. Основываясь на содержании текстов «Demand and Supply» и «Theory of Demand», раскройте тему теории спроса.

Примерный вариант рассказа о теории спроса:

Consumer demand is the quantity of a particular good that an individual consumer wants and is able to buy as the price varies. Factors influencing demand for a good are the prices of other goods, consumer income and a number of non-economic factors, such as social, physiological, demographic characteristics of the consumer in question.

The theory of demand is based on the assumption that the consumer having budget constraints seeks to reach the maximum possible level of utility. The consumer has to choose the specific goods within the limits imposed by his budget.

A price increase will result in a reduction in the quantity demanded. At low prices the demanded quantity is higher. This relationship between the quantity demanded of a good and its price is called the law of demand.

Market demand is the quantity of a good that all consumers in a particular market want and are able to buy as the price varies. Market demand depends on the number of consumers in the market as well as on all factors influencing individual demand.

III. Как правило, придаточное предложение присоединяется к главному посредством союза. Однако в английском языке возможны случаи опущения соединительных союзов who, which, that (который), when (когда). В подобных случаях при переводе на русский язык необходимо восстановить опущенный союз. Для того чтобы правильно определить место пропущенного союза, необходимо следовать следующему правилу: если за двумя рядом стоящими существительными (или существительным и личным местоимением в общем падеже) следует глагол в личной форме, то после первого существительного восстанавливается союз:

I don’t want to buy the car you have chosen. – Я не хочу покупать машину, которую ты выбрал.

Задание 1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, восстанавливая при переводе опущенный соединительный союз:

1. Money can be used to buy things we wish to consume.

2. We must know the prices at the moment we need money for making expenditures.

3. The output of an agricultural commodity this year depends on decisions the farmer made last year.

4. A government can restrict the choice a consumer makes.

5. The European economy of the 2020s will be very different from that of the Europe we have known for the last decades.

6. Higher incomes have much more influence on the way people eat (more meat, less bread) than on the amount they eat.

7. Real income is the amount of the goods and services a consumer can buy with his money income.

8. A consumer is a person who consumes the products and services he buys.

9. The price at the time the good is ready for marketing may be different from the price at the time the decision to produce it was made.

10. The amount of output firms want to offer depends on costs and revenues.

11. Firms' decisions about how much to produce depend on the costs of production and on the revenues they receive from selling the output.

12. The amount of output firms want to offer depends on costs and revenues.

IV. Студентам предоставляется возможность рассказать об основных мировых экономических системах.

ВОПРОСЫ К ЗАЧЕТУ

1. Особенности перевода глагола to be.

2. Особенности перевода номинативной цепочки.

3. Особенности перевода различных аспектуальных форм английского глагола соотносимых с настоящим временем.

4. Особенности перевода различных аспектуальных форм английского глагола соотносимых с прошедшим временем.

5. Особенности перевода различных аспектуальных форм английского глагола соотносимых с будущим временем.

6. Особенности образования и перевода настоящего и прошедшего причастий.

7. Особенности образования и перевода степеней сравнения прилагательных.

8. Особенности образования и перевода видовременных форм английского глагола в страдательном залоге.

9. Значения и особенности перевода модальных глаголов.

10. Количественные и порядковые числительные. Особенности прочтения дат, простых и десятичных дробей.

11. Особенности перевода определительных придаточных предложений, присоединенных бессоюзным способом.

КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №1

Предлагаемая контрольная работа содержит 10 вариантов. Номер варианта определяется в соответствии с порядковым номером студента в журнале. Каждый вариант контрольной работы предполагает выполнение следующих семи заданий:

1. Прочитайте, озаглавьте и переведите текст:

2. Выпишите из текста предложения, содержащие глагол to be. Объясните особенности его перевода, сгруппируйте выбранные Вами предложения в соответствии с теми или иными особенностями перевода.

3. Выпишите из текста предложения, содержащие номинативную цепочку. Объясните особенности ее перевода.

4. Выпишите из текста предложения, содержащие модальные глаголы. Объясните особенности их перевода, приведите примеры к каждому глаголу.

5. Выпишите из текста предложения, содержащие причастие I и причастие II. Объясните особенности их перевода, в соответствии с чем систематизируйте их по трем группам.

6. Выпишите из текста предложения, содержащие степени сравнения прилагательных, расклассифицировав их по двум группам.

7. Подчеркните в тексте все сказуемые и определите их видовременные формы.

Вариант 1

I was born at Number Nineteen, Turnmill Street, London. My mother died when I was five years old. She died fifteen minutes after my sister Polly was born. As my father worked from morning till night, he had no time to look after Polly and me, so he married again soon. He married Mrs Burke, who was much younger and more good-looking than my mother. But I did not like my stepmother and she did not like me. So we began to hate each other; but she did not show her hatred when my father was at home. She beat me very often and she made me work very hard. From morning till night she found work for me to do. I looked after the baby. When she was awake, I took her for a walk, carrying her in my arms, and she was very heavy. I cleaned the rooms, went shopping, etc. There was always work for me to do.

One day a woman came to see my stepmother and they drank a lot of gin. All the money that my father had left for our dinner was spent. When the woman went home, my stepmother said to me in tears, "Oh, what shall I do, Jimmy, dear, what shall I do? Your father will come home soon, and there is no dinner for him. He will beat me cruelly! What shall I do, what shall I do?" I was sorry for her, she had tears in her eyes, and she called me "Jimmy, dear" for the first time. I asked her if I could help her and she said at once, "Oh, yes, you can help me! When your father comes home in the evening, Jimmy, dear, tell him that you lost the money he left for our dinner." "How could I lose it?" I asked in surprise. "You can tell him that I sent you to buy some food. Suddenly a big boy ran against you and the money fell out of your hand and you could not find it. That will be very easy to say, Jimmy, dear, please, say it to your father!" "But he'll give me a good beating for it!" "Oh, no, he won't! I shall not let him beat you, you may be sure! Here is a penny for you, go and buy some sweets with it!"

So I went off and spent my penny on sweets. When I came back and opened the door, my father was at home waiting for me with his waist-belt in his hand. I wanted to run out of the room, but he caught me by the ear. "Stop a minute, young man!" he said. "What have you done with the money?" "I lost it, Father," said I in fear and looked at my step­mother. "Oh, you lost it! Where did you lose it?" "In the street, Father. Ask Mrs. Burke, she knows!" I told him what my stepmother had asked me to tell him. I was not much surprised that he did not believe my story. But my stepmother's words surprised me very much. "Yes, he told me the same thing," she said, "but he is a liar! He has spent your money on sweets. I can't beat him, he is your child, but you can give him a good beating!" And she stood by while my father beat me with his belt till the blood showed. I hated my stepmother so much now that I wanted to see her dead.

Вариант 2

Of all the different ideas that have been started lately, I think that the very best is the notion of celebrating once a year "Mother's Day". We decided to have a special celebration of Mother's Day. We thought it a fine idea. It made us realize how much Mother had done for us for years, and all the efforts and sacrifices that she had made for our sake.

So we decided that we'd make it a great day, and so we decided to decorate the house with flowers. We asked Mother to do it, because she always does it. Father decided to take a holiday from his office, so as to help in celebrating the day, and my sister Ann and I stayed home from college classes, and Mary and my brother Will stayed home from High School.

The two girls thought it would be a nice thing to dress in our best for such a big occasion, and so they both got new hats. Father had bought silk ties for himself and us boys. We were going to get Mother a new hat too, but it turned out that she liked her old hat better than a new one.

After breakfast we decided that we would hire a motor car and take Mother for a beautiful drive away into the country. Mother is hardly ever able to have a treat like that, because she is busy in the house nearly all the time.

But on the very morning of the day we changed the plan a little bit. We all felt that it would be nicer to have a definite purpose. It turned out that Father had just got a new rod the day before, and he said that Mother could use it if she wanted to: in fact, he said it was practically for her, only Mother said she would rather watch him fish than fish herself.

So we got everything arranged for the trip. Mother cut up some sandwiches and packed all up in a basket for us. When the car came to the door, it turned out that we couldn't all get in. Father said that he could stay at home and work in the garden. There was a lot of dirty work that he could do. He said that he wanted us to be happy and have a big day. The girls said that Mother had only to say the word and they'd gladly stay at home and work.

In the end it was decided that Mother would stay at home and have a lovely restful day round the house. It turned out anyway that Mother didn't care for fishing and also it was just a little bit cold and fresh out-of-doors, though it was lovely and sunny, and Father was afraid that Mother might take cold if she came. So we all drove away and Mother stood and watched us as long as she could see us. We had the loveliest day. Father and the boys fished, the girls met quite a lot of peo­ple. We all had a splendid time.

It was quite late when we got back. The dinner was ready. It was grand. Mother had to get up and down during the meal fetching things back and forward, but at the end Fa­ther noticed it and said she simply mustn't do it, that he wanted her to spare herself.

When the dinner was over all of us wanted to help clear the things up and wash the dishes, only Mother said that she would really much rather do it.

It was quite late when it was all over, and when we all kissed Mother before going to bed, she said it had been the most wonderful day in her life and I think there were tears in her eyes.

Вариант 3

On the same day Mr. Drummond decided to send me to school. I was given new clothes: a long coat of pepper and salt, yellow leather breeches and a cap. A tin plate was hung upon my breast with No 63 on it. This showed of the boys at the school. I was taken to the school by Mr. Drummond, and before we came there we met the boys all out walking. I was at once put into their ranks and Mr. Drummond went away.

The school had two chiefs – the chief schoolmaster and the chief servant. The master was the more important of the two, and as he will often appear in the pages of my story, I shall describe him in detail. Domine Dobiensis, or Dreary Dobbs, as we called him, was a tall and thin man. He had a long face with a large nose. He was a learned man, because, firstly, he had written a book on Greek grammar, and, secondly, he was fond of solving mathematical problems. At the moment when he was deep in his calculations he did not see or hear anything around him. The boys knew this weakness of their teacher and often said: "The Domine is in his dreams, and talks in his sleep. At a moment like this he quite forgot about the class, and the boys did what they liked. But when the Domine began to blow his nose it was a sure sign that he had returned from his abstraction. The boys stopped their games, opened their books, and silence again fell on the class.

The Domine loved a pun, and he often made puns in English, Greek and Latin. Nobody understood the Greek and Latin puns, and so nobody laughed at them. But that was, probably for the better because the Domine himself was a very serious man and never laughed aloud.

"Jacob Faithful, come here," were the first words that I heard the next morning when I had taken my seat at the farther end of the schoolroom. I rose and walked through two lines of boys to the master's high desk from which he looked down upon me.

"Jacob Faithful, can you read?"

"No, I can't," I replied. "I wish I could."

"A good answer, Jacob: your wish will come true. Do you know your alphabet?"

"I don't know what that is."

"Then you don't know it. Mr. Knapps will teach you. He teaches the beginners. To your studies now."

After saying this the Domine called up the first class, while Mr. Knapps called me to my first lesson. Mr. Knapps was a thin young man of about twenty years of age. He was small and weak, but very cruel. Although the Domine did not allow him to punish the boys, Mr. Knapps beat them when he remained alone with them in the schoolroom. I have almost nothing else to say of Mr. Knapps, except that he wore a black coat and wiped his pen on his left sleeve and his nose on the right.

Вариант 4

The last half of the XVI and the beginning of the XVII centuries are known as the golden age of English literature. It was the time of the English Renaissance, and some­times it is even called "the age of Shakespeare".

William Shakespeare, the greatest and most famous of English writers, and probably the greatest playwright who has ever lived, was born in Stratford-on-Avon. In spite of his fame we know very little about his life. The things that we know about Shakespeare's life begin with the date when he was baptised in the church of Stratford, on April 26, 1564, when he was only a few days old. So he is believed to have been born on April 23.

Though little is known about William's childhood, there is every reason to believe that he was educated at the local Grammar School. When little over eighteen he married Anne Halthaway of Shottery. William lived in Stratford until he was about twenty-one, when he went to London. We do not know why he left Stratford-on-Avon.

There is a story that Shakespeare's first job in London was holding rich men's horses at the theatre door. But nobody can be sure that this story is true. Later, Shakespeare became an actor and a member of one of the chief acting companies. Soon he began to write plays for this company and in a few years became a well-known author.

One writer of that time said that Shakespeare liked a quiet life, he did not like drunken parties, and was not fond of being invited to the court. "If he was invited to the court, he was in pain."

Shakespeare's experience as an actor (although he usually acted only small parts, like the Ghost in Hamlet) helped him greatly in the writing of his plays. His knowledge of the stage and his poetical genius made his plays the most wonderful ones ever written.

Shakespeare wrote 37 plays. Among them there are deep tragedies, such as Hamlet, King Lear, Othello, Macbeth, light comedies, such as The Merry Wives of Windsor, All's Well That Ends Well, Twelfth Night, Much Ado About Nothing, historical dramas, such as Henry IV, Richard III

Most of Shakespeare's plays were not published in his lifetime. So some of them may have been lost in the fire when the "Globe" burned down in 1613.

Shakespeare spent the last years of his life at Stratford, where he died in 1616. He was buried in the church of Stratford. A monument was erected to the memory of the great playwright in the Poet's Corner in Westminster Abbey.

Вариант 5

In the fifteenth century people knew only three continents: Europe, Asia and Africa. They knew nothing about such a big continent as America.

The man who was thought to be the discoverer of America was born in 1451 in Italy. His name was Christopher Columbus. He probably worked as a weaver before going to sea.

At that time the life of a sailor was full of adventure and danger; so Columbus had many exciting experiences. Once during a battle with a vessel off the coast of Portugal, he had to leave his boat and swim to the shore a long distance away. He afterwards lived in Portugal a number of years, and while there, he married the daughter of a sea captain. For some time he earned his living, partly by making sea voyages, and partly by drawing maps and selling them.

Knowing that the earth was round, he decided to reach India by sailing to the west. It was very difficult for him to organize his expedition as nobody wanted to help him. Many years after, the Spanish government gave him some money for his expedition.

In 1492 he sailed with three small ships into the Atlantic Ocean. They soon met a northeastern wind that drove them farther and farther south-west. They had been sailing for more than two months. The sailors began a mutiny. They were afraid that they would not be able to return home. At last they saw land. When they landed they saw strange trees and flowers. Men and women with olive-colored skins gathered around them and looked at them with great surprise.

Columbus was certain that the lands he discovered were part of India, and he called these islands the West Indies. The people living there have been called Indians since then, though they have nothing in common with the real Indians – inhabitants of India.

Columbus' second voyage to America took place in 1493. This time he discovered some other islands of the West Indies.

Twice more Columbus tried to find India. During his third voyage, enemies spread false rumours about him. King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella were led to believe that he was a tyrant. Columbus was sent home in chains. Back in Spain, he quickly proved his innocence. His last voyage was made in 1502-1504. After that, seriously ill, he remained in Spain until his death. He died believing that Cuba was part of Asia.

Columbus was tall and imposing. No real portrait of him exists, but he is described in the writings of the men of his time as having blue eyes, red hair, and a freckled complex­ion, which reddened when he was excited.

Columbus' voyages gave Europe its first important knowledge of the New World. Other explorers, their imaginations fired by his discoveries, sailed for the Americas after Columbus. In the western hemisphere many places have been named in his honour. The Americas, however, were named after another explorer, Amerigo Vespucci.

Вариант 6

George Washington, the first president of the United States, was born on a plantation in Virginia, on February 22, 1732. At the death of his father, George, who was then only eleven years old, was left along with his brothers and sisters in the care of his mother. He went to a little country school, where he learned to read and to do sums in arithmetic. He was a good student and a great favourite with his playmates.

Lawrence Washington, George's eldest brother, had married a Miss Fairfax, whose father lived in Virginia and was a relative of Lord Fairfax, a rich land owner of the colony. When George was fourteen years of age, Lawrence took him to visit Lord Fairfax. This old man of sixty took a liking to George, and they became great friends. Lord Fairfax had been told that people were settling on his land, a hundred miles or so west of the Blue Ridge Mountains. Washington was then sixteen, and had some knowledge of surveying; so Fairfax employed him to go over the mountains and measure the land and establish the boundary lines. Washington did his work so well that the Governor of Virginia afterward employed him as public surveyor for the colony.

A little later the French tried to establish themselves west of the Allegheny Mountains, and they began to build forts along the rivers. The Governor of Virginia gave Washington, who was then twenty-one years old, the military title of major and sent him to order the French to leave this territory. The entire distance there and back was about a thou­sand miles. Washington, accompanied by one white man and several friendly Indians as guides, had to pass through thick forests and across mountains and broad rivers full of floating ice. Many of the Indians in the region that Washington and his men passed through had allied themselves with the French to fight against the English.

Washington was a strong, brave man, and he made his way safely to the French headquarters. He informed the French commander of the object of his visit, but the French refused to leave. When the answer was brought back to the Governor of Virginia, Washington was made colonel and sent out with an army of one hundred and fifty men to drive the French from the territory near the junction of the Allegheny and Monongahela rivers. At first the English were defeated. But this war, called the French and Indian War, lasted several years and resulted in the English getting possession of the land from the Atlantic to the Mississippi River.

A few years later the American colonies had a war with England. The war was begun by the colonists, chiefly because of certain grievances about taxes, and was brought on by the acts of George III, Mr. Grenville, and Lord North. It lasted eight years and resulted in the independence of the colonies.

Shortly after the war ended the people of all the colonies formed a new nation, preserving the colonies, however, as independent states for certain functions of government. By common consent they selected George Washington to be the first president, recognizing him as pre-eminent among his fellow-countrymen, as well as relying on his hand to guide them in their new venture in government.

Вариант 7

What will you find if you go to Australia? It will seem to you rather an upside-down world. New Year is at midsummer, midwinter is in June. Hot winds blow from the north: cold winds blow from the south. The farther north we go, the hotter it gets. The trees look strange; it will seem odd to you that they never lose their leaves, and you will miss the bare branches in winter.

Australia is a land of strange birds and beasts such as the kangaroo, koala, echidna, dingo.

What about the climate? Australians boast that they can sleep out-of-doors all the year round. The sun shines in winter and in summer. Snow and ice are rare, except in the high mountains. There is not much rain, and drought is a constant anxiety. In bad times, and in the driest parts, many animals may die for want of water.

Australia was discovered by the Dutch in 1606, but the continent was not settled till captain Cook discovered the east coast in 1770.

When settlement of Australia began in 1788 the continent was inhabited by about 300,000 people, who are now called aborigines. These people generally had black, wavy hair and brown skin. They kept no domestic animals except the dingo and used weapons made of wood and stone. They had no permanent homes but moved about hunting and gathering food.

Diseases brought by settlers caused many deaths among the aborigines. Now there are only about 60,000 of them left- Some of them live on mission stations where they are housed and fed. Others are employed as stockmen on the ranches of northern Australia. Many of them still live a difficult nomadic life in the desert region.

The first white settlers were convicts, soldiers, and a few free men from England. In the early years people depended upon farming and sheep raising for a living. Merino sheep were brought to Australia from Africa in 1797. This breed, raised for its high-quality wool, now makes up about 80 per cent of Australia's sheep.

Not until the discovery of gold in the 1850's was there a large migration to Australia. Some of the gold seekers who were unsuccessful turned to cattle or sheep raising or to farming. Others began exploring elsewhere in Australia for minerals.

Before World War II more than 95 per cent of the population was of English descent; since then, however, people from other nations have moved to Australia in growing numbers.

Вариант 8

New York is the largest city in the United States and one of the largest cities in the world. It is situated in the natural harbour of the mouth of the Hudson River. In 1626 the Dutch Trade Company bought Manhattan Island from the local Indians for twenty four dollars. Here the Dutch founded their colony and gave it the name New Amsterdam. Forty years later the English fleet entered the harbour, captured the city and renamed it New York.

There are five "boroughs" in New York: Brooklyn, the Bronx, Manhattan, Queens and Richmond. Only one of them, Bronx, is not on an island. All districts of New York are linked together by numerous bridges.

Manhattan, the smallest island in New York, is the real centre of the city. When peo­ple say "New York City" they usually mean Manhattan. Only 1,500,000 people live in Manhattan, but five million people work here every day. Many live in the suburbs and come to work on the subway. Wall Street in Manhattan is the financial heart of the USA and the most important banking centre in the world. The United Nations has its headquarters in Manhattan.

The "Big Apple", as New York City is nicknamed, has an energy that few other cities can equal. John F. Kennedy International Airport is one of the busiest in the world. More ships come into New York's harbour than into any other port in the world.

New York is a city of "skyscrapers", those incredible, high buildings which Americans invented. If you want to have a good view of New York City you can do it from the top of the World Trade Centre (110 stories) or from the Empire State Building (102 stories). Not far from the Empire State Building there is an interesting architectural ensemble – Rockefeller Centre. It was built according to one general plan. Rockefeller Centre consists of 15 skyscrapers. Rockefeller Centre houses all kinds of offices, enterprises, theatres and music halls.

New York is the national leader in business, finance, manufacturing, advertising, fashion and the arts. New York is often called the cultural capital of the USA. The city has the Metropolitan Museum of Art, the Museum of Modern Art, the Lincoln Arts Centre. You can see the newest plays and shows on Broadway. Broadway is the symbol of American theatre, as Hollywood is of American cinema.

Вариант 9

We do not know when men began to give names to the places where they lived, and to the seas, rivers, lakes and mountains around them. Very often they invented a name that described a place in some way, for example, Bear Mountain or White Lake. The water of the Dead Sea is so salty that nothing can live in it; the reason for the name is clear. The water of the Black Sea is a beautiful blue colour. But the ancient Creeks, when they looked to the East, often saw dark storm clouds over the water and they named the sea the Black Sea. The Pacific Ocean is known for its terrible storms. But on the day when the Spaniard Balboa first saw it, the ocean lay quiet in the bright sunlight, and he called it Pacific, which means "peaceful, quiet".

From the name of places, we are often able to tell who the inhabitants were at some time in the past. There are cities and towns in the Crimea and the Ukraine whose names end in "pol": Simferopol, Sevastopol, Melitopol. We can be sure, even without reading history books, that Greeks settled there in ancient times and gave the places their names: "polis" means "city" in Greek.

Sometimes elements of different languages enter into the names of places. In the name of Shakespeare's birthplace, Stratford-on-Avon, we see four words from three different languages. At this place, a Roman road (in Latin "strata") crossed the Avon Cm the Welsh language the word "afon" means "a river"). The English word "ford" means a place where we can cross a river. So the name Stratford-on-Avon means "the place where the road crosses the river." From this we know that at different times, Roman, Welsh and English people lived there.

Latin words began to be used in English place-names very long ago. The Latin word "strata" later developed into the English word "street." The Latin "portus" became the English "port," and is seen in the names of many English places: Southport, Portland, Portsmouth.

The oldest place-names in the United States are, of course, Indian. They are mostly names of what the people saw in nature: mountains, lakes, rivers and waterfalls. The name of America's greatest river, the Mississippi, is made up of two Indian words: "misi" (great) and "sipi" (water). Like all ancient names, these Indian names were passed on from father to son by word of mouth: they lived not on maps or in writing, but in the speech of the people.

Europeans found the Indian names very difficult to pronounce, and they pronounced them according to the rules of pronunciation in their own languages. But even in their changed form, the unusual and poetic sound of these Indian words remains: Niagara, Chicago, Kalamazoo.

The Europeans who arrived in America renamed many of the mountains, lakes and rivers, and gave names to the new towns that they built. We can easily tell where Europeans from different countries settled in America, by analyzing the old place-names. There are English names in the north east and along the eastern coast, for example, New London, Portland, New York; there are Dutch names in many districts of New York City (Brooklyn, Harlem) and in other parts of New York State; Spanish names in Florida. There are many French names in the southern states and along the Mississippi. The oldest names in the west – in the states of California, Texas, New Mexico and Arizona are Spanish.

All these names and many others are language monuments of the early days of American history, when the first Europeans arrived in the new world.

Вариант 10

One of the most striking features of English life is the self-discipline and courtesy of people of all classes. There is little noisy behaviour, and practically no loud disputing in the street. People do not rush excitedly for seats in buses or trains, but take their seats in queues at bus stops in a quiet and orderly manner.

Englishmen are naturally polite and are never tired in saying "Thank you", "I'm sorry", "Beg your pardon". If you follow anyone who is entering a building or a room, he will hold a door open for you. Many foreigners have commented on a remarkable politeness of the English people.

English people don't like displaying their emotions even in dangerous and tragic situations, and ordinary people seem to remain good-tempered and cheerful under difficulties.

The Englishman does not like any boasting or showing off in manners, dress or speech. Sometimes he conceals his knowledge: a linguist, for example, may not mention his understanding of a foreigner's language. The Englishman prefers his own house to an apartment in a block of flats, because he doesn't wish his doing to be overlooked by his neighbours. "An Englishman's house is his castle." Many Englishmen help their wives at home in many ways. They clean the windows on Saturday afternoon, they often wash up the dishes after supper in the evening.

Sunday is a very quiet day in London. All the shops are closed, and so are the theatres and most of the cinemas. Londoners like to get out of town on Sundays. The sea is not far – only fifty or sixty miles away and people like to go down to the sea in summer or somewhere to the country for skiing in winter.

American society seems to be much more informal than the British and, in some ways, is characterized by less social distinction. Students do not rise when a teacher enters the room. One does not always address a person by his title, such as "Major" or "General" or "Doctor" in the case of a holder of a Doctor of Philosophy degree. The respectful "Sir" is not always used in the northern and western parts of the country. However, it is best to use a person's title when first meeting him/her, and then allow the person to tell you how he/ she wishes to be called. They use first names when calling each other, slap on the back, joke and are much freer in their speech, which is more slangy than the conventional British English. You will often hear the word "Hi" (a form of greeting among friends) used instead of the usual "Hello," and "Howdy" instead of "How do you do?"

Those who don't easily show these signs of friendship are called "snooty" or "snobbish." In contrast, people who show such simple signs of friendship, particularly to their own economic and social inferiors, are praised as "regular guys," or as "truly democratic." As a description of character, democratic is generally used to signify that a per­son of high social or economic status acts in such a way that his or her inferiors are not reminded of their inferiority.

Yet, in spite of all the informality, Americans, even in the way they address each other, show consciousness of social distinction. For example, one is likely to use somewhat more formal language when talking to superiors. While the informal "Hello" is an acceptable greeting from employee to employer, the employee is more apt to say "Hello, Mr. Ferguson," while the employer may reply "Hello, Jim." Southerners make a point of saying "Yes, sir," or "Yes, Ma'am," or "No, sir," or "No, Ma'am," when talking to an older person or a person in a position of authority. While this is good form all over the United Stales, "Yes, Mr. Weston" or "No, Mrs. Baker" is somewhat more common in a similar situation in the North or West.

Certain other forms of politeness are observed on social occasions. Women may wear hats in church, in restaurants, and often when attending luncheons in public places and other public social functions except those that take place in the evening. Men who do wear hats ordinarily remove them in elevators, churches, restaurants, private homes, business offices – in fact, in most public situations when they wish to show respect.

Семестр II

Практическое занятие № 7.

План

1. Чтение и перевод текста «Theory of Supply».

2. Презентация темы «Theory of Demand».

I. Прочитайте и переведите следующий текст на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода определительных придаточных предложений, присоединенных бессоюзным способом:

Theory of Supply

The theory of supply is the theory of how much output firms choose to produce. The principal assumption of the supply theory is that the producer will maintain the level of output at which he maximizes his profit. Profit can be defined in terms of revenue and costs. Revenue is what the firm earns by selling goods or services in a given period such as a year. Costs are the expenses which are necessary for producing and selling goods or services during the period. Profit is the revenue from selling the output minus the costs of inputs used.

Costs should include opportunity costs of all resources used in production. Opportunity cost of a commodity is the amount obtained by an input in its best alternative use (best use elsewhere). In particular, costs include the owner's time and effort in running a business. Costs also include the opportunity cost of the financial capital used in the firm.

Aiming to get higher profits, firms obtain each output level as cheaply as possible. Firms choose the optimal output level to receive the highest prof­its. This decision can be described in terms of marginal cost and marginal revenue.

Marginal cost is the increase in total cost when one additional unit of output is produced.

Marginal revenue is the corresponding change in total revenue from selling one more unit of output.

As the individual firm has to be a price-taker¹, each firm's marginal revenue is the prevailing market price. Profits are the highest at the output level at which marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue, that is, to the market price of the output. If profits are negative at this output level, the firm should close down.

An increase in marginal cost reduces output. A rise in marginal revenue increases output. The optimal quantity also depends on the output prices, as well as on the input costs. Of course the optimal supply quantity is affected by such non-economic factors as technology, environment, etc².

Making economic forecasts, it is necessary to know the effect of a price change on the whole output rather than the supply of individual firms.

Market supply is defined in terms of the alternative quantities of a commodity all firms in a particular market offer as price varies and as all other factors are assumed constant.

¹ to be a price-taker - зд. принимать сложившиеся на рынке цены

² etc. - и так далее, и тому подобное

II. Студентам предоставляется возможность рассказать о теории спроса.

Практическое занятие № 8.

План

1. Рассмотрение особенностей перевода слова one. Практическое освоение навыков различных вариантов перевода: выполнение упражнений.

2. Рассмотрение особенностей перевода слова it. Развитие навыков грамматического анализа на практике: упражнение на перевод.

3. Грамматическая конструкция «инфинитив в функции подлежащего, обстоятельства цели и следствия». Инфинитивный оборот «for + существительное / местоимение + инфинитив». Развитие навыков грамматического анализа на практике: перевод предложений.

4. Составление темы «Theory of Supply».

I. Слово one может быть:

1) числительным один.

Например: One of the most important tasks now is transportation of these goods. – Одной из самых важных задач сейчас является транспортировка этих товаров.

2) заместителем ранее упомянутого существительного.

В этом случае слово one не переводится или «восстанавливается» существительное, которое one заменяет. Например: I don't like this method, let's use another one. – Мне не нравится этот метод, давайте используем другой (метод).

3) формальным подлежащим, если оно стоит перед глаголом в личной форме.

В этом случае слово one не переводится. Например: One economizes by buying large amounts of goods. – Экономят, покупая большие количества товара.

Как формальное подлежащее слово one широко употребляется с модальными глаголами, где переводится следующим образом:

one must / one has to / one is to – нужно, необходимо

one should / one ought to – нужно, следует

one can / one may – можно

Например: One should know the difference between these systems of marketing. – Следует знать разницу между этими системами сбыта.

4) словосочетание one thing переводится словом одно.

Задание 1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода слова one:

1. One of my friends always asks me a lot of questions.

2. I don't like this method, let's use another one.

3. One economizes by buying large amounts of goods.

4. One should know the differences between these systems of marketing.

5. One thing in which workers are different is human capital.

6. It is one of the three leading elements of production.

7. One can classify labour into productive and unproductive.

8. The most general distinction is the one made between physical, financial and human capital.

9. Economists consider a satisfactory lease to be the one that is profitable both for the landowner and the tenant.

10. A worker in the United Kingdom earns more than the one in India.

II. Местоимение it может иметь разные значения и выполнять различные функции в предложении. Оно может быть:

1) личным местоимением в именительном падеже.

В этом случае на русский язык оно переводится местоимениями он, она, оно. Например: This good is in great demand as it is of high quality. – Этот товар пользуется большим спросом, так как он высокого качества.

2) указательным местоимением со значением «это».

Например: It is the best auto fuel. – Это лучшее автомобильное топливо.

3) формальным подлежащим в безличных предложениях; на русский язык не переводится. Например: a) It is cold. – Холодно. b) It is necessary to research this market. – Необходимо исследовать этот рынок. c) It is desirable that the technology be improved. – Желательно, чтобы технология была усовершенствована.

4) частью усилительной конструкции it is ... that, перевод которой начинается словом именно. Например: It is this method of analysis that yielded best results. – Именно этот метод анализа дал наилучшие результаты.

Задание 2. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода слова it:

1. Firms can either save their income or pay it out to their owners.

2. In comparing the national incomes it is not important which members of the population earn this income.

3. It is economical to buy large quantities of a product rather that small quantities.

4. Early economists said that that the value of product depended upon the amount of labour needed to produce it.

5. The company is not large and it cannot invest much in production.

6. It is the law of demand and supply that influences the retail price.

7. It was our director who spoke about the losses of the company.

8. It is essential that they keep accurate records of every transaction.

9. It was the issued stocks that allowed our company to accumulate the necessary money for the new project.

10. It is one of the three leading elements of production.

III. Если предложение начинается с инфинитива, за которым следует глагол-сказуемое, то этот инфинитив является подлежащим и перево­дится на русский язык глаголом в неопределенной форме или существительным. Например:

То employ workers with little human capital is one of the ways of minimizing labour costs. – 1) Нанимать рабочих с незначительным человеческим капиталом – это один из способов снизить затраты на рабочую силу. 2) Наем рабочих с незначительным человеческим капиталом — это один из способов снизить затраты на рабочую силу.

Инфинитив (или инфинитивная группа – т.е. инфинитив с уточняющими его словами), находясь в начале предложения, может выполнять функцию обстоятельства цели. Такой инфинитив часто вводится союзом in order (чтобы, для того чтобы). Например:

In order to lower juvenile delinquenсу governments have to create jobs for young people. – Чтобы снизить уровень преступности среди молодежи, правительство должно создавать рабочие места для молодых людей.

Однако союз in order часто опускается, и тогда предложение начинается с инфинитива (или инфинитивной группы). При переводе на русский язык перед таким инфинитивом следует добавить союз чтобы. Например:

То lower juvenile delinquency governments have to create jobs for young people. – Чтобы снизить уровень преступности среди молодежи, правительство должно создавать рабочие места для молодых людей.

Инфинитив в предложении выполняет также функцию обстоятельства следствия и переводится неопределенной формой русского глагола с союзом чтобы (для того чтобы) после слов enough (достаточно) и too (слишком). Например:

The average wage in this industry is high enough to attract workers from other industries. – Средняя заработная плата в этой отрасли достаточно высока для того, чтобы привлечь рабочих из других отраслей.

The wage in this enterprise is too low to attract qualified workers. Заработная плата на этом предприятии слишком низкая, чтобы привлечь квалифицированных рабочих.

Оборот «for + существительное (личное местоимение в объектном падеже) + инфинитив» может употребляться либо самостоятельно, либо после слов it is necessary / important / possible и т.п., либо после слов too (слишком), enough (достаточ­но). Во всех случаях инфинитивный оборот соответствует русскому придаточному предложению с союзом чтобы, а инфинитив в таком придаточном предложении переводится сказуемым. Например:

For advanced technology to be introduced, the owner invested his profit in new equipment. – Для того чтобы была внедрена новая технология, собственник вложил свою прибыль в новое оборудование.

It is necessary for society to allocate resources sparingly. – Необходимо, чтобы общество размещало ресурсы экономно.

The production costs in the enterprise are too high for it to work profitably. – Производственные издержки на этом предприятии слишком высоки, чтобы оно работало рентабельно.

Задание 3. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, учитывая особенности функционирования инфинитива в роли подлежащего либо обстоятельства:

1. To run a business is to plan its activities.

2. To manufacture this model of equipment is profitable for producers.

3. To earn more profit the firm has to vary its technology.

4. The firm should change its production cycle to lower costs.

5. Governments borrow money from firms and individuals to finance their spending.

6. Labour markets should be effective enough for workers not to stay unemployed long.

7. For research to be carried out, the governments have to invest enough resources in their research institutes.

8. The unemployment is growing too rapidly for labour markets to be in equilibrium.

9. For the business to be efficient, all production costs have to be minimized.

10. To know the contribution of every industry to the national economy is very important for the government.

11. The government ought to take steps to reduce the unemployment rate.

12. To build atomic power stations near rivers is common practice.

13. A business needs some financial capital to start the business before the corresponding revenue is earned.

IV. Основываясь на содержании текстов «Demand and Supply» и «Theory of Supply», составьте тему «Теория предложения».

Примерный вариант рассказа о теории предложения:

The theory of supply is the theory of how much output firms choose to produce. The principal assumption of the supply theory is that the producer will maintain the level of output at which he maximizes his profit. Profit is the revenue from selling the output minus the costs of inputs used.

Aiming to get higher profits, firms obtain each output level as cheaply as possible. Profits are the highest at the output level at which marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue, that is, to the market price of the output.

When prices are high the supplied quantity is high as well. At low prices the supplied quantity is low. The optimal supply quantity depends on the output prices, the input costs, technology, degree of government regulation, environment, etc.

Market supply is the quantity of a commodity that all firms in a particular market offer as the price varies. Market supply is important for making economic forecasts.

Практическое занятие № 9.

План

1. Чтение и перевод текста «Factors of Production: Capital and Labour».

2. Презентация темы «Theory of Supply».

I. Прочитайте и переведите следующий текст на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода слов one и it, инфинитива в функции подлежащего либо обстоятельства, оборота «for + существительное / местоимение + инфинитив»:

Factors of Production: Capital and Labour

Factors of production are resources used by firms as inputs for a good or service to be produced. Factors of production are as follows: capital, labour, and natural resources.

In economic theory, the term "capital" refers to goods and money used to produce more goods and money. Classifications of capital vary with the purpose of the classification. The most general distinction is the one made between physical, financial, and human capital.

Physical capital is land, buildings, equipment, raw materials. Bonds, stocks, available bank balances are included in the financial capital. They both make a great contribution to production.

To group capital into fixed capital and circulating capital is common practice¹. The former refers to means of production such as land, buildings, machinery and various equipment. They are durable, that is, they participate in the production process over several years. Circulating capital includes both non-renewable goods, such as raw materials and fuel, and the funds required to pay wages and other claims against² the enterprise. Non-renewable goods are used up in one production cycle and their value is fully transferred to the final product.

Human capital is knowledge that contributes "know-how" to production. It is increased by research and disseminated through education. Investment in human capital results in new, technically improved, products and production processes which improve economic efficiency. Like physical capital, human capital is important enough to be an indicator of economic development of a nation.

It is common, in economics, to understand labour as an effort needed to satisfy human needs. It is one of the three leading elements of production. Labour has a variety of functions: production of raw materials, manufacturing of final products, transferring things from one place to another, management of production, and services like the ones rendered by physicians and teachers.

One can classify labour into productive and unproductive. The former produces physical objects having utility. The latter is useful but does not produce material wealth. Labour of the musician is an example.

Unlike other factors of production, for example capital, when workers are employed, their efficiency can vary greatly with organization of work and their motivation.

Demand for labour is influenced by the demand for goods produced by workers, the proportion of wages in total production costs, etc. The supply of labour depends upon the size of population, geographic mobility, skills, education level (human capital), etc. Workers supply labour either individually or through trade unions. If demand for and supply of labour are not in equilibrium, there is unemployment. The rate of unemployment is a percentage of the total labour force without a job. It is desirable for an economy to have the lowest possible unemployment rate and to achieve higher employment as neither full use of resources nor maximum level of output can be achieved in an economy having unemployment.

Factors of production are combined together in different proportions in order to produce output. It is assumed in economics that one should choose the combination of factors which minimizes the cost of production and increases profits.

The third factor of production, natural resources, poses too many economic problems³ to be discussed here. We will analyze them in the following unit.

¹ is common practice – зд. общепринято

² claims against – требования; претензии на что-л., права на что-л.

³ to pose problems – ставить проблемы

II. Студентам предоставляется возможность раскрыть тему «Теория предложения» в устном рассказе.

ВОПРОСЫ К ЗАЧЕТУ

1. Особенности перевода слова one.

2. Особенности перевода слова it.

3. Грамматическая конструкция «инфинитив в функции подлежащего, обстоятельства цели и следствия». Инфинитивный оборот «for + существительное / местоимение + инфинитив».

КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №2

Предлагаемая контрольная работа содержит 10 вариантов. Номер варианта определяется в соответствии с порядковым номером студента в журнале. Каждый вариант контрольной работы предполагает выполнение следующих семи заданий:

1. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

2. Выпишите из текста предложения, содержащие номинативную цепочку. Объясните особенности ее перевода.

3. Подчеркните в тексте все сказуемые и определите их видовременные формы.

4. Выпишите из текста сложносоставные предложения, содержащие определительные придаточные предложения, присоединенные к главному предложению бессоюзным способом. Объясните особенности перевода подобных предложений.

5. Выпишите из текста предложения, содержащие инфинитив в функции подлежащего или обстоятельства. Объясните особенности перевода подобных предложений.

6. Выпишите из текста предложения со словом one, объясните особенности его перевода в каждом случае.

7. Выпишите из текста предложения со словом it, объясните особенности его перевода в каждом случае.

Вариант 1

There are a large number of statistics produced regularly on the operation of the world's major economies. The UK's economy is no exception in this respect. You will probably have noticed that often the headlines in newspapers or important items on television news programmes relate to economic data and the implications for individuals and businesses. A prime example of this occurs when interest rates are increased: the media responds by highlighting the adverse effects on businesses with debts and householders with mortgages.

Data is provided on a wide range of aspects of the economy's operation. Statistics are available to show:

• the level of unemployment

• the level of inflation

• a country's trade balance with the rest of the world

• production volumes in key industries and the economy as a whole

• the level of wages

• raw material prices, and so forth.

The main statistics illustrating the economy's behaviour relate to the level of activity in the economy. That is, they tell us whether the economy is working at fall " capacity using all or nearly all, available resources of labour, machinery and other factors of production or whether these resources are being under-utilized.

The unemployment figures for the economy give an indicator of the level of activity. As the economy moves towards a recession and a lower level of prosperity it is likely that unemployment figures will rise. An alternative measure of the level of activity is national income statistics, which show the value of a nation's output during a year. Economists use the term Gross National Product to describe this data. Changes in the level or trends of such key data have great significance for businesses, as we shall see later.

There are numerous sources of data on the economy of which we can make use. The government publishes much through the Treasury, Department of Trade and Industry, the Bank of England and the Department of Employment. The Central Statistical Office, which was established during the Second World War, publishes about half of the government's economic data.

Much of this is contained in its annual publication, "The Annual Abstract of Statistics". It also publishes the equally valuable "Social Trends" annually. Additionally, private organizations, such as the banks, building societies and universities, publish figures on various aspects of the economy's performance.

Economic statistics are presented in many forms, the most common being graphs and tables. Although these statistics can be valuable in assisting managers, they should be treated with some caution when predicting the future trend of the economy and thus helping the business to take effective decisions.

Вариант 2

Economics is the study of how people choose to allocate scarce resources to satisfy their unlimited wants. The main problem in economics is the question of allocating scarce resources between competing uses. In this section three economic issues are discussed to show how society allocates its scarce resources between competing uses. In this connection the question what, how and for whom to produce is of great significance.

People usually respond to prices in this or that way. When the price of some commodity increases, consumers will try to use less of it but producers will want to sell more of it. These responses, guided by prices, are part of the process by which most Western societies determine what, how and for whom to produce.

Consider first how the economy produces goods and services. When, as in the 1970s, the price of oil increases six-fold, every firm will try to reduce its use of oil-based products. Chemical firms will develop artificial substitutes for petroleum inputs to their production processes; airlines will look for more fuel-efficient aircraft; electricity will be produced from more coal-fired generators. In general, higher oil prices make the economy produce in a way that uses less oil.

How does the oil price increase affect what is being produced? Firms and households reduce their use of oil-intensive products, which are now more expensive. Households switch to gas-fired central heating and buy smaller cars. Commuters form car-pools or move closer to the city. High prices not only choke off the demand for oil-related commodities; they also encourage consumers to purchase substitute commodities. Higher demand for these commodities bids up their price and encourages their production. Designers produce smaller cars, architects contemplate solar energy, and research laboratories develop alternatives to petroleum in chemical production. Throughout the economy, what is being produced reflects a shift away from expensive oil-using products towards less oil-intensive substitutes.

The «for whom» question in this example has a clear answer. OPEC revenues from oil sales increased from $35 billion in 1973 to nearly $300 billion in 1980. Much of this increased revenue was spent on goods produced in the industrialized Western nations. In contrast, oil-importing nations had to give up more of their own production in exchange for the oil imports that they required. In terms of goods as a whole, the rise in oil prices raised the buying power of OPEC and reduced the buying power of oil-importing countries such as Germany and Japan.

The world economy was producing more for OPEC and less for Germany and Japan. Although it is the most important single answer to the ‘for whom' question, the economy is an intricate, interconnected system and a disturbance anywhere ripples throughout the entire economy.

In answering the «what» and «how» questions, we have seen that some activities expanded and others contracted following the oil price shocks. Expanding industries may have to pay higher wages to attract the extra labour that they require. For example, in the British economy coal miners were able to use the renewed demand for coal to secure large wage increases. The opposite effects may have been expected if the 1986 oil price slump had persisted.

Вариант 3

Let's turn to the most important tool for an economist - the production possibility frontier. This frontier shows the maximum combinations of output that the economy can produce, if it uses all its available scarce resources.

The easiest way to explain it is to complete a figure. First, the vertical axis or line, is labelled «food output». The units of food output run from nought at the bottom to 25 at the top, entering the units of food output in fives: 0, 5, 10, etc. Along the horizontal axis (or the bottom line) we have units of film output. Let's enter in the units of film output in fives again, this time up to 30.

Suppose we have an economy with only food and film industries. Now, if we put all the workers into producing food, we shall produce 25 units of food, but no units of film. We can mark this on the diagram with point A - no film, 25 units of food. It means point A comes on the vertical line at the number 25. Now, at the other extreme, if the economy puts all its workers into producing film, it will produce 30 units, but it will not produce any food. So, the next point is on the bottom, horizontal line, at 30 units. Let's label it as point E.

These two points, A and E, are the two extreme points of the production possibility frontier. Let's put in three more points. Point В is where the economy is producing 22 units of food and 9 units of film. Point С is where the economy is producing 17 points of both film and food. And, finally, point D is where we have 10 units of food and 24 units of film. Now draw a line joining all these points together, from A to E. The line drawn is not a straight line, it's a concave curve. It is this concave curve that is called the production possibility frontier.

The production possibility frontier represents a trade-off. More of one commodity, food of film, means less of the other, and this is because of the law of diminishing returns. It states that if, in the production of a commodity, one factor of production is increased by stages while the other factors are kept unchanged, the stage will sooner or later be reached where each farther addition 1 to the increasing factor will produce a smaller and smaller increase in output.

Вариант 4

Normative economics is based on subjective value judgements, not on the search for any objective truth. The following statement combines positive and normative economics: "The elderly have very high medical expenses compared with the rest of the population, and the government should subsidize health bills of the aged." The first part of the proposition – the claim that the aged have relatively high medical bills – is a statement in positive economics, it is a statement about how the world works, and we can imagine a research programme that could determine whether or not it is correct. Broadly speaking, this assertion happens to be correct.

The second part of the proposition – the recommendation about what the government should do – could never be "proved" to be correct or false by any scientific research investigation. It is simply a subjective value judgement based on the feelings of the person making the statement. Many people might happen to share this subjective judgement, for example those people who believe that all '• citizens alive today should be able to purchase roughly equal amounts of luxury and recreational goods after paying for the necessities of life. But other people might reasonably disagree. You might believe that it is more important to devote society's scarce resources to improving the environment.

There is no way that economics can be used to show that one of these normative judgements is correct and the other is wrong. It all depends on the preferences or priorities of the individual or the society that has to make this choice. But that does not mean that economics can threw no light on normative issues. We can use positive economics to spell out the detailed implications of making the choice one way or the other. For example, we might be able to show that failure to subsidize the medical bills of the elderly leads middle-aged people to seek a lot of unnecessary medical check-ups in an attempt to detect diseases before their treatment becomes expensive. Society might have to devote a great deal of resources to providing check-up facilities, leaving less resources available than had been supposed to devote to improving the environment. Positive economics can be used to clarify the menu of options from which society must eventually make its normative choice.

Вариант 5

DIFFERENT KINDS OF MONEY

In prisoner-of-war camps, cigarettes served as money. In the 19th century money was mainly gold and silver coins. These are examples of commodity money, ordinary goods with industrial uses (gold) and consumption uses (cigarettes), which also serve as a medium of exchange. To use a commodity money, society must either cut back on other uses of that commodity or devote scarce resources to producing additional quantities of the commodity. But there are less expensive ways for society to produce money.

A token money is a means of payment whose value or purchasing power as money greatly exceeds its cost of production or value in uses other than as money.

A $10 note is worth far more as money than as a 3x6 inch piece of high-quality paper. Similarly, the monetary value of most coins exceeds the amount you would get by melting them down and selling off the metals they contain. By collectively agreeing to use token money, society economizes on the scarce resources required to produce money as a medium of exchange. Since the manufacturing rastoare tiny, why doesn't everyone make $10 notes?

The essential condition for the survival of token money is the restriction of the right to supply it. Private production is illegal.

Society enforces the use of token money by making it legal tender. The law says it must be accepted as a means of payment.

MONEY AND ITS FUNCTIONS

Although the crucial feature of money is its acceptance as the means of payment or medium of exchange, money has other functions. It serves as a standard of value, a unit of account, a store of value and as a standard of deferred payment. We discuss each of the functions of money in turn.

Вариант 6

OTHER FUNCTIONS OF MONEY

Money can also serve as a standard of value. Society considers it convenient to use a monetary unit to determine relative costs of different goods and services. In this function money appears as the unit of account, is the unit in which prices are quoted and accounts are kept.

In Russia prices are quoted in roubles; in Britain, in pounds sterling; in the USA, in US dollars; in France, in French francs. It is usually convenient to use the units in which the medium of exchange is measured as the unit of account as well. However there are exceptions. During the rapid German inflation of 1922-1923 when prices in marks were changing very quickly, German shopkeepers found it more convenient to use dollars as the unit of account. Prices were quoted in dollars even though payment was made in marks, the German medium of exchange.

The situation in Russia nowadays reminds of that in Germany.

Money is a store of value because it can be used to make purchases in the future.

To be accepted in exchange, money has to be a store of value. Nobody would accept money as payment for goods supplied today if the money was going to be worthless when they tried to buy goods with it tomorrow. But money is neither the only nor necessarily the best store of value. Houses, stamp collections, and interest-bearing bank accounts all serve as stores of value. Since money pays no interest and its real purchasing power is eroded by inflation, there are almost certainly better ways to store value.

Finally, money serves as a standard of deferred payment or a unit of account over time. When you borrow, the amount to be repaid next year is measured in pounds sterling or in some other hard currency. Although convenient, this is not an essential function of money. UK citizens can get bank loans specifying in dollars the amount that must be repaid next year. Thus the key feature of money is its use as a medium of exchange. For this, it must act as a store of value as well. And it is usually, though not invariably, convenient to make money the unit of account and standard of deferred payment as well.

Вариант 7

A commercial bank borrows money from the public, crediting them with a deposit. The deposit is a liability of the bank. It is money owed to depositors. In turn the bank lends money to firms, households or governments wishing to borrow.

Banks are not the only financial intermediaries. Insurance companies, pension funds, and building societies also take in money in order to relend it. The crucial feature of banks is that some of their liabilities are used as a means of payment, and are therefore part of the money stock.

Commercial banks are financial intermediaries with a government license to make loans and issue deposits, including deposits against, which cheques can be written.

Let's start by looking at the present-day UK banking system. Although the details vary from country to country, the general principle is much the same everywhere.

In the UK, the commercial banking system comprises about 600 registered banks, the National Girobank operating through post offices, and a dozen trustee saving banks. Much the most important single group is the London clearing banks. The clearing banks are so named because they have a central clearing house for handling payments by cheque.

A clearing system is a set of arrangements in which debts between banks are settled by adding up all the transactions in a given period and paying only the net amounts needed to balance inter-bank accounts.

Suppose you bank with Barclays but visit a supermarket that banks with Lloyds. To pay for your shopping you write a cheque against your deposit at Barclays. The supermarket pays this cheque into its account at Lloyds. In turn, Lloyds presents the cheque to Barclays, which will credit Lloyds' account at Barclays and debit your account at Barclays by an equivalent amount. Because you purchased goods from a supermarket using a different bank, a transfer of funds between the two banks is required. Crediting or debiting one bank's account at another bank is the simplest way to achieve this.

However on the same day someone else is probably writing a cheque on a Lloyds' deposit account to pay for some stereo equipment from a shop banking with Barclays. The stereo shop pays the cheque into its Barclays' account, increasing its deposit. Barclays then pays the cheque into its account at Lloyds where this person's account is simultaneously debited. Now the transfer flows from Lloyds to Barclays.

Although in both cases the cheque writer's account is debited and the cheque recipient's account is credited, it does not make sense for the two banks to make two separate inter-bank transactions between themselves. The clearing system calculates the net flows between the member clearing banks and these are the settlements that they make between themselves. Thus the system of clearing cheques represents another way society reduces the costs of making transactions.

Вариант 8

The change in interest rates has important implications for the stockmarket prices of bonds, which pay a fixed rate of interest: fixed-interest securities, of which the traditional gilt-edged securities issued by the government are the most familiar though companies also issue fixed-interest bonds. It works like this.

Gilt-edged securities are a form of IOU (I owe you) or promissory note issued by the government when it needs to borrow money. The government undertakes to pay so much a year in interest to the people who put up the money and who get the IOU in exchange. Normally the government agrees to redeem the stock at some date in the future, but to illustrate the interest rate mechanism it is easiest initially to take an irredeemable or undated stock, which does not have to be repaid.

The original investors who lend the money to the government do not have to hold on to the IOUs. They can sell them to other investors, who then become entitled to receive the interest from the government. Suppose the government needs to borrow money at a time when investors would expect an 11% yield on a gilt-edged security. It offers $11 a year interest for every $100 it borrows. The investor is prepared to pay $100 for the right to receive $11 a year interest, because this represents an 11% return on his outlay.

Then suppose that interest rates rise to a point where an investor would expect a 12,5% return if he bought a gut-edged security. He will no longer pay $100 for the right to $11 a year in income. He will only be prepared to pay a price that gives him a 12.5% return on his outlay. The "right" price in this case is $88, because if he pays only $88 to receive $11 a year in income, he is getting a 12.5% return on his investment. So in the stock market the price of the gut-edged security that pays $11 a year interest will have to fall to $88 before investors are prepared to buy it. The original investor who paid $100 thus sees the value of his investment fall because of the rise in interest rates. Conversely, the value of his investment would have risen if interest rates had fallen.

To summarize: If interest rates on securities go down, bond prices or prices for securities go up, and vise versa.

Вариант 9

The money market comprises the demand for money and the money supply. The equilibrium in the money market is such a state of balance when the demand for money from households and businesses is satisfied by the quantity of the money supplied. The equilibrium in the money market is reached by changing bond prices.

People can hold their wealth in various forms – money, bonds, equities, and property. For simplicity we assume that there are only two assets: money, the medium of exchange that pays no interest, and bonds, which we use to stand for all other interest-bearing assets that are not directly a means of payment. As people earn income, they ad to their wealth. As they spend, they deplete their wealth. How should people divide their wealth at any instant between money and bonds to gain the best profits possible and not to incur losses?

There is an obvious cost of holding money. The opportunity cost of holding money is the interest one would have gained if he (she) had held bonds. It naturally follows that people will hold money rather than bonds only if there is a benefit to offset this cost, only if holding money is more profitable than holding bonds. It may happen only when interest rates on bonds are too low to make it profitable to hold bonds.

Suppose the money market is in equilibrium when the interest rate on interest-bearing assets (e.g. Treasury bills and other securities) is 6% and the amount of money demanded is $200 mln. Now suppose the interest rate goes down, say, to 4%. In this case interest-bearing assets are no longer profitable as they can't earn a sufficient return. Hence the demand for money will rise and will lead to a temporary lack of money in the money market. If they lack money, households and businesses are likely to sell bonds they possess for cash. That will cause an increase in the bond supply, which lowers bond prices and rises interest rates on interest-bearing assets. With a higher interest rate the amount of money people are willing to have in hand will decrease again. Consequently, the money supply will adjust to a current demand to reflect a new higher interest rate.

Conversely, the increase in the money supply creates its temporary surplus, which results in the demand for bonds and bond prices going up. The interest rate falls thus restoring balance in the money market, but at a new lower interest rate.

Вариант 10

MARKETS AND INTEREST RATES

For each type of investment and for many of their derivatives there is a market. There is a market in money in London. It is not a physical marketplace: dealings take place over the telephone, and the price a borrower pays for the use of money is the interest rate. There are markets in commodities. And there is a market in government bonds and company shares: the stockmarket. The important thing is that no market is entirely independent of the others. The linking factor is the cost of money (or the return an investor can get on money). If interest rates rise or fall there is likely to be a ripple of movement through all the financial markets. Money will gravitate to where it earns the best return, commensurate with the risk the investor is prepared to take and the length of time for which he can tie up his money. This is the most important mechanism in the financial sphere. As a general rule:

• The more money you have to invest, the higher the return you can expect.

• The longer you are prepared to tie your money up, the higher the return you can expect.

• The more risk you are prepared to take, the higher the return you can expect if all goes well.

In either type of market, the buyers and the sellers may deal direct with each other or they may deal through a middleman known as a marketmaker. If they deal direct, each would-be buyer has to find a corresponding would-be seller. If there is a marketmaker, a seller will sell instead to the marketmaker, who buys on his own account in the hope that he will later be able to find a buyer to whom he can sell at a profit. Marketmakers make a book in shares or bonds. They are prepared to buy shares in the hope of finding somebody to sell to or sell shares (which they may not even have) in the expectation of finding somebody from whom they can buy to balance their books. Either way, they make their living on the difference between the prices at which they buy and sell. Marketmakers (in practice there will normally be a number of them competing with each other) lend liquidity – fluidity – to a market. A potential buyer can always buy without needing to wait until he can find a potential seller, securities can readily be turned into cash.

Семестр III

Практическое занятие № 10.

План

1. Инфинитивная конструкция «сложное дополнение». Особенности перевода.

2. Особенности перевода слова due и сочетаний с ним.

3. Особенности перевода соединительного союза which.

I. Конструкция «сложное дополнение» – это существительное или местоимение в объектном падеже + инфинитив. Данная конструкция употребляется после сказуемого, выраженного следующими глаголами: would like, to want – хотеть; to know – знать; to think – думать; to believe – считать, полагать; to consider – считать; to suppose – полагать, считать; to presume – полагать, допускать; to expect – ожидать, предполагать; to find – находить и некоторых других в действительном залоге.

На русский язык «сложное дополнение» переводится придаточным предложением с союзами что, чтобы, при этом инфинитив английского предложения передается сказуемым русского предложения. Например:

Some economists consider minimum wage to reduce jobs for unskilled workers. – Некоторые экономисты полагают, что минимальная заработная плата уменьшает количество рабочих мест для неквалифицированных работников.

После глаголов to let (позволять, разрешать) и to make (заставлять, принуждать) инфинитив в конструкции «сложное дополнение» употребляется без частицы to: They made him close the company on the grounds of not sufficient turn-over. – Его вынудили закрыть компанию на основании недостаточного денежного оборота.

Задание 1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода конструкции «сложное дополнение»:

1. We know many newly industrialized countries to have weak trade unions.

2. The developing countries want the rich countries to stop imposing tariffs on imports from the Third World.

3. Economists consider land to be the factor of production supplied by nature.

4. As the prices of fuels rise, we expect their production to expand.

5. Some businessmen think trade union regulations to result in fewer jobs.

6. A rise in the price of a unit of labour will make the firm start using a more capital-intensive technology (капиталоемкая технология).

7. Higher prices for oil make research laboratories work at substitutes for oil.

8. The command economy does not let an individual make free economic decisions.

9. Increased output per worker in agriculture lets more workers be transferred from agriculture to industry.

10. Allocation of additional capital lets a high level of production be maintained with fewer workers.

11. When market conditions change, economists expect the price for land to vary.

12. Too high cost of imported cotton (хлопок) has made a lot of textile enterprises close down in Russia.

13. Economists believe the availability of labour to be an essential requirement for economic activity.

14. Private-sector producers consider profitability to be the most essential condition of their business.

15. In a supermarket, the seller chooses the goods and the prices making buyers decide how much they want to make a purchase in this particular place.

16. Economists say demand for non-essential goods to be particularly inelastic.

17. A decrease in prices for energy could let farmers improve technology rapidly.

18. High oil prices make consumers purchase substitute commodities.

19. The sellers know these factors to influence consumers’ decision to buy.

20. The manager expects the new equipment to increase productivity.

II. Запомните следующие особенности перевода слова due и сочетаний с ним:

due – надлежащий, соответствующий

due to – вследствие, благодаря

to be due to – объясняться, обусловливаться

Задание 2. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода слова due и сочетаний с ним:

1. The growth of labour force due to growing numbers of women workers results in higher unemployment.

2. The increase in the value of fuel exports was due mainly to the rise in oil prices after 1973.

3. The Prime Minister says due steps will immediately be taken in order to control inflation.

4. Economists believe that all governments will pay due attention to economic problems caused by growing scarcity of natural resources.

5. Due to a wage increase, more capital-intensive technologies may become substitutes for labour.

6. Employment among young men is very low in Germany, which is due to the government's subsidies for education.

III. Обычно соединительный союз which служит для присоединения определительного придаточного предложения и на русский язык переводится который, однако существуют случаи, когда союз which относится ко всему предыдущему предложению и переводится союзом что. Например:

Economists know reduced supplies of non-renewable resources to result in their higher prices which provides an incentive to look for natural or synthetic substitutes for them. – Экономистам известно, что сокращение запасов невозобновимых ресурсов приводит к повышению цен на них, что является стимулом к поиску их естественных или синтетических заменителей.

Задание 3. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода союза which:

1. The government did not pay due attention to the economists' recommendations, which led to lower economic growth.

2. Some economists expect world population to reach 12-13 billion as soon as 2020-2025, which will require much more non-renewable resources than at present.

3. The consumer incomes have risen, which has resulted in lower demand for inferior goods.

4. Under conditions of food shortage a government might impose a price ceiling on food, which will let poor people buy adequate quantities of food.

5. The relative cost of using capital and labour in rich and poor countries affects the manner in which goods and services are produced.

6. In the 1980s, the Finnish government offered a subsidy to landowners for afforestation, which was a disincentive for them to go on using land for farming.

7. The land used formerly (ранее) for mining is being transferred to farming and afforestation, which is to improve the environment.

8. Profits are maximized at the output level at which marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue.

9. Unemployment benefits provide disincentives to looking for a new job, which increases unemployment.

10. Trade unions let workers participate in many types of political activities, which is essential for protecting their interests.

11. About 60 percent of the world's population live in poor countries, the two largest of which are India and Indonesia.

12. Investors try to buy the resources now before their supplies have been used up, which will send up prices.

Практическое занятие № 11.

План

1. Чтение и перевод текста «Factors of Production: Natural Resources and Land».

2. Составление темы «Factors of Production».

I. Прочитайте и переведите следующий текст на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода конструкции «сложное дополнение», слова due и сочетаний с ним, а также соединительного союза which:

Factors of Production: Natural Resources and Land

Economists consider natural resources to be the third factor of production. They are a contribution to productive activity made by land (for example, a factory site or farm location), raw materials such as iron ore, timber, oil, water for crops and power production, forests and animals. Some natural resources, wheat, for example, are renewable, others such as iron ore are non-renewable and will sooner or later be used up. Economists know reduced supplies of non-renewable resources to result in their higher prices, which provides an incentive to look for natural or synthetic substitutes for them.

The supply of land, an essential natural resource, is limited and it cannot be easily increased to meet an increase in demand except in certain cases. For example, the Dutch have been able to reclaim from the sea¹ some areas of low-lying land.

Another essential characteristic of land is that it is durable, that is, land is not used up in the production process, although it may be depleted by use.

Land is, in some respects², close to physical capital, though the former is supplied by nature and the latter is produced by man. But applying labour to kill weeds or fertilizer to improve the soil, farmers can “produce” better land and raise its price.

Price of or income from land, as well as from other natural resources, is called rent. Land itself has no cost of production, so rent depends on the degree of scarcity and on the demand for it.

The purposes for which land is used are due to its characteristics. Land can be used for housing or offices, for mining, or for building roads. Besides, it contributes to the production of crops, providing an environment that supplies water, air, and nutrients for plant growth.

Land is a unique agricultural resource, so a lot of management problems arise. In the first place³, the farmer has to make a choice between buying and leasing it. The advantages and disadvantages depend on the farmer’s financial position, on the availability of land for lease and purchase and some other factors.

Because purchasing land usually requires a larger capital, farmers with limited capital lease land and use their capital for machinery and other resources.

Economists consider a satisfactory lease to be the one that is profitable both for the landowner and the tenant. A fair lease compensates both parties in proportion to their contributions to the farm business.

Other management problems may arise due to differences in land profitability in various farming branches and other industries. Economists know different crops and classes of animals to vary in profitability. The farmer has to study thoroughly the conditions on his farm to make a correct choice between alternative uses.

Although the total supply of land is limited, its allocation between industries is not. If a government wants to stimulate, for example, either housing or afforestation⁴, it offers a subsidy raising the rent received by owners of housing land or forests. This may create incentives for farmers to transfer land from farming to other industries.

¹ reclaim from the sea – зд. отвоевывать у моря

² in some respects – в некоторых отношениях

³ in the first place – прежде всего

⁴ afforestation – лесонасаждение

II. Используя тексты «Factors of Production: Capital and Labour» и «Factors of Production: Natural Resources and Land», составьте тему «Факторы производства».

Примерный вариант рассказа об основных факторах производства:

Factors of production are resources used by firms as inputs for a good or service to be produced. They are: capital, labour and natural resources.

Capital refers to goods and money used to produce more goods and money. Physical capital is land, buildings, equipment, raw materials. Financial capital is bonds, stocks and available bank balances. Human capital is knowledge that contributes “know-how” to production.

Labour is an effort needed to satisfy human needs. Productive labour produces physical objects having utility. Unproductive labour does not produce material wealth but is also useful.

Natural resources are raw materials such as iron ore, timber, oil, water for crops and power production, forests and animals and productive activity made by land.

Factors of production are combined together in different proportions in order to produce output. One should choose the combination of factors which minimizes the cost of production and increases profit.

Практическое занятие № 12.

План

1. Особенности перевода инфинитива в функции определения. Практическое закрепление полученных знаний: выполнение упражнений.

2. Особенности перевода предложений с вводящим словом there.

3. Презентация темы «Factors of Production».

I. Инфинитив или инфинитивная группа, следующие за существительным, могут являться определением к этому существительному. Инфинитив в функции определения может переводиться на русский язык различными способами:

1. неопределенной формой русского глагола:

The employers’ refusal to raise wages resulted in a strike. – Отказ работодателей повысить заработную плату привел к забастовке.

2. определительным придаточным предложением, начинающимся словами который будет или который должен. Сказуемое такого придаточного предложения обозначает действие, которое должно произойти в будущем. Инфинитив, переводимый придаточным предложением, чаще всего имеет пассивную форму (to be used, to be produced и т.п.):

The Gross National Product per head is an important characteristic to be considered in determining living standards. – Валовый национальный продукт на душу населения – это важная характеристика, которая должна приниматься во внимание при определении уровня жизни.

3. определительным придаточным предложением, начинающимся словами который может. Сказуемое такого придаточного предложения обозначает действие, которое можно произвести с определяемым существительным. Инфинитив имеет, как правило, пассивную форму:

То raise the living standards of population is the goal to be only reached under conditions of economic growth. – Повышение жизненного уровня населения — это цель, которую можно достичь только в условиях экономического роста.

Задание 1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода инфинитива. Укажите, в каких предложениях нужно употребить слово «который» при переводе их на русский язык:

1. Depreciation decreases amounts to be consumed and invested.

2. The firm should change its production cycle to lower costs.

3. Too high prices of resources to be used in production is the problem of many enterprises.

4. Governments borrow money from firms and individuals to finance their spending.

5. How much more efficiently than the government the private sector uses resources remains a problem to discuss.

6. To keep the economy as close as possible to full employment is an essential aim for the government to reach.

7. Larger investments in production expansion result in smaller amounts to be saved and to be distributed as dividends.

8. Durable goods are goods to be used in production in future or to be consumed over a long period of time.

9. A person starting his own business should have some financial capital to support the firm’s operation before any revenue is earned.

10. Farmers normally attract additional labour force to be used at harvest time.

11. The value of the total output to be produced in the public sector and the private sector will make up the gross national product.

12. Depreciation decreases amounts to be consumed and invested.

13. Too high prices of resources to be used in production is the problem of many enterprises.

14. When people lose jobs, they do not immediately make a decision to cut down consumption.

15. Although money is a helpful tool to measure output, there may arise certain difficulties.

II. В конструкции there is (are) слово there не имеет собственного значения, выступая в роли формального подлежащего. При этом сочетающийся с ним глагол to be может употребляться в различных видовременных формах:

Present Simple:

There are various forms of money. – Существуют различные формы денег.

Past Simple:

Some years ago there were a lot of command economies in the world. – Несколько лет назад в мире существовало много стран с плановой экономикой.

Future Simple:

There will be a sale in this supermarket. – В этом супермаркете будет распродажа.

В приведенных выше примерах переводится только глагол to be, слово there не переводится. Подобным образом, в сочетаниях there should, there must, there can, there may, there exist, there come, there live переводится только глагол:

There exist different forms of business organization. – Существуют различные формы организации предприятий.

There lived very primitive tribes on those islands. – На тех островах жили очень примитивные племена.

There may be a fall in price for the goods in the near future. – Возможно падение цен на товары в ближайшем будущем.

Задание 2. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода предложений с вводящим словом there:

1. Since the 1960s there has been an increasing tendency for population to move from city centres to the countryside.

2. Although in a perfect market there should always be a variety of sellers, large numbers of sellers are not always available in the real life.

3. There must be equilibrium between demand for and supply of goods.

4. In the United States, there live at present over two hundred million people.

5. There is clearly seen a tendency to put less weight on the government's role in an economy than in the past.

6. There have recently been offered nationwide schemes providing in­centives for industrial investment.

7. There may be a number of ways to solve the problem of scarce informa­tion resources.

8. There exists considerable unemployment in some economies while a lot of vacancies (вакансия, незанятое рабочее место) cannot be filled.

9. In the 1980s, there continued a rise in the GN P per person in all groups of countries.

10. Since government intervention in agriculture has grown, there have occurred considerable changes in grain markets both of the USA and Europe.

11. There is a large amount of economic activity that cannot be measured, such as household services and the underground economy.

12. There exists close (тесная) relationship between minimum wages and standard of living.

13. If there is a subsidy for housing, there may be an incentive for the land­owner to transfer land from farming to housing.

14. There is unequal (неравный) income distribution within each country as well as between (different) countries.

III. Студентам предоставляется возможность раскрыть тему «Факторы производства» в устном рассказе.

Практическое занятие № 13.

План

1. Чтение и перевод текста «Circular Flow of Payments and National Income».

2. Составление темы «Circular Flow of Payments and National Income».

I. Прочитайте и переведите следующий текст на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода инфинитива в функции определения и предложений с вводящим словом there:

Circular Flow of Payments and National Income

To have a glimpse in the working of the economy as a whole may be of use to a student of economics.

In every economy there are lots of households to supply labour and capital to firms that use them to produce goods and services. Firms provide incomes for households, who in turn¹ use this money to purchase the goods and ser­vices produced by firms. This process is called the circular flow of payments².

The gross domestic product (GDP) is the total money value of all final goods produced in the domestic economy over a one-year period. The GDP can be measured in three ways: (a) the sum of the value added³ in the production within a year, (b) the sum of incomes received from producing the year’s output, (c) the sum to spend on the year’s domestic output of goods and services.

The total money value of all final goods and services in an economy over a one-year period, that is the GDP, plus property income from abroad (interest, rent, dividends and profits) make the gross national product (GNP). The GNP is an important measure of a country’s economic well-being, while the GNP per head provides a measure of the average standard of living of the country’s people. However, this is only an average measure of what people get. The goods and services available to particular individuals depend on the income distribution within the economy.

We now recognize that assets wear out in the production process either physically or become obsolete. This process is known as depreciation. There has to be part of the economy’s gross output to replace existing capital, and this part of gross output is not available for consumption, investment, government spending, or exports. So we subtract depreciation from the GNP to arrive at national income.

National income measures the amount of money the economy has available for spending on goods and services after setting aside enough money⁴ to replace resources used up in the production process.

Since output is determined by demand, the aggregate demand or spending plans of households and firms determine the level of the output produced, which in turn makes up the income available to households and firms. Aggregate demand is the amount to be spent by firms and households on goods and services.

Governments also intervene in the circular flow of income and payments. They buy a considerable part of the total output of goods and services in an economy adding their demand to the demand of the private sector. Since government spending is a large component of aggregate demand, and since taxes affect the amount households and companies have for spending, government spending and taxation decisions, which are referred to as⁵ fiscal policy, have major effects on aggregate demand and output.

¹ in turn – в свою очередь

² circular flow of payments – кругооборот платежей; circular flow of income – кругооборот дохода. Оба выражения используются параллельно для обозначения процесса движения денег и товаров между отдельными субъектами экономики (юридическими и физическими лицами)

³ value added – добавленная стоимость; часть стоимости произведенной продукции, которая была внесена данным предприятием. Она определяется как разница между стоимостью продаж и себестоимостью материалов, энергии и т.п. и включает заработную плату, издержки на реализацию и некоторые другие расходы. Суммарная добавленная стоимость всей экономики равна ВВП.

⁴ after setting aside … money – после того, как отложены деньги

⁵ are referred to as – называются

II. Используя содержание текста «Circular Flow of Payments and National Income», составьте тему «Кругооборот платежей и национальный доход».

Примерный вариант рассказа о кругообороте платежей и национальном доходе:

The circular flow of income is the process when firms provide income for households, who in turn use this money to purchase goods and services produced by firms thus returning money to the firms.

The gross domestic product is the total money value of all final goods produced in the domestic economy within a year. The GDP plus property income from abroad make the gross national product. The GNP is an important measure of a country’s economic well-being.

Depreciation is the process when assets wear out in the production either physically or become obsolete. When we subtract depreciation from the GNP we arrive at national income.

Практическое занятие № 14.

План

1. Конструкция «сложное подлежащее». Отработка навыков перевода: выполнение упражнений.

2. Презентация темы «Circular Flow of Payments and National Income».

I. Инфинитивная конструкция «сложное подлежащее» состоит из существительного или местоимения в именительном падеже плюс инфинитив.

Употребляется со сказуемыми:

1) в действительном залоге: to seem, to appear (казаться, по-видимому), to prove, to turn out (оказаться), to happen (случаться), to be likely (вероятно), to be unlikely (маловероятно, вряд ли), to be certain, to be sure (несомненно, наверняка, безусловно). Например:

This company proved to contribute а lot to the pension fund. – Оказалось, что эта компания делает большие взносы в этот пенсионный фонд.

Unemployment benefits are unlikely to serve as incentives for men to look for jobs. – Вряд ли пособия по безработице будут служить стимулом для поисков работы.

Progressive taxation seems to be the most wide-spread. – Прогрессивное налогообложение, по-видимому, самое распространенное.

2) в страдательном залоге: to know (знать), to say (говорить), to think (думать), to believe (полагать), to consider (считать, полагать, рассматривать), to expect (ожидать, предполагать), to report (сообщать), to suppose (предполагать), to find (находить, обнаруживать), to assume (предполагать, допускать), to presume (полагать, допускать). Например:

This firm is said to receive high profits. – Говорят, что эта фирма получает большие прибыли.

This new business was believed to improve the situation in the market. – Полагали, что это новое предприятие улучшит положение дел на рынке.

This practice has been found to require new capital investments. – Установлено, что этот прием потребует новых капиталовложений.

Перевод конструкции «сложное подлежащее» начинается со сказуемого английского предложения, которое становится вводным предложением русского варианта, затем вводится союз что, инфинитив английского предложения становится сказуемым русского варианта, подлежащее сохраняется без изменений.

Задание 1. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода конструкции «сложное подлежащее»:

1. The budget deficit is known to be the excess of government expenditure over government revenue.

2. Markets are said to bring together buyers and sellers of goods and services.

3. The massive influx (зд. включение) of women into the labour force is sometimes assumed to result in unemployment.

4. Alcohol and tobacco are usually believed to be products with a very inelastic demand.

5. An increase in the wage rate is expected to reduce the quantity of labour demanded.

6. A subsidy is known to be money or other resources provided by the government to support a business activity or a person.

7. Demand for imports is expected to rise when domestic income and output rise.

8. High unemployment rate in Europe is assumed to result from high unemployment benefits.

9. The private sector is normally considered to use resources more productively than the government.

10. Social security payments and unemployment benefits are known as transfer payments.

11. It is known that taxes raised at the national level, such as income tax or VAT (value added tax), are usually supplemented (дополнять) by local taxes.

12. More people have been found to choose to stay unemployed in countries with very high tax rates.

13. Chemical and steel workers know their earnings to increase more than those in textile and trade sectors.

14. The UK government is known to take nearly 40 percent of national income in taxes.

15. Macroeconomics is concerned with demand for goods by households or the total spending on machinery and buildings by firms.

Задание 2. Переведите следующие предложения на русский язык, определив, в каких предложениях имеется конструкция «сложное подлежащее»:

1. Labour, machinery, raw materials, energy are known as inputs.

2. Labour, machinery, raw materials, energy are known to be inputs.

3. The Gross National Product per head is considered when living stan­dards are measured.

4. It was supposed that the transportation problems of the firm would be solved in the near future.

5. Every producer is supposed to study the market carefully before starting the production of new goods.

6. Taxes are assumed to redistribute incomes within an economy.

7. It appears that electronic commerce is one of the most developed mar­kets.

8. Rapid introduction of credit cards all over Russia is unlikely at present.

9. New banking services seem to come into life rapidly.

10. Positive economics is sure to play an essential part in social life.

11. High tech industries prove to bring in a considerable share of national income in the USA.

II. Студентам предоставляется возможность раскрыть тему «Кругооборот платежей и национальный доход» в устном рассказе.

Практическое занятие № 15.

План

1. Чтение и перевод текста «Taxes and Public Spending».

2. Знакомство с темой «The Central Bank and Financial Markets».

3. Составление темы «My Future Profession».

I. Прочитайте и переведите следующий текст на русский язык, учитывая особенности перевода конструкции «сложное подлежащее»:

Taxes and Public Spending

In most economies government revenues come mainly from direct taxes on personal incomes and company profits as well as indirect taxes levied on purchase of goods and services such as value added tax (VAT) and sales tax. Since state provision of retirement pensions is included in government expenditure, pension contributions to state-run social security funds are included in revenue, too. Some small component of government spending is financed through government borrowing.

Government spending comprises spending on goods and services and transfer payments. Governments mostly pay for public goods, that is, those goods that, even if they are consumed by one person, can still be consumed by other people. Clean air, national defense, health service are examples of public goods. Governments also provide such services as police, fire-fighting and the administration of justice¹.

A transfer is a payment, usually by the government, for which no corresponding service is provided in return². Examples are social security, re­tirement pensions, unemployment benefits and, in some countries, food stamps³.

In most countries there are campaigns for cutting government spending. The reason for it is that high levels of government spending are believed to exhaust resources that can be used productively in the private sector. Lower incentives to work are also believed to result from social security payments and unemployment benefits.

Whereas spending on goods and services directly exhausts resources that can be used elsewhere, transfer payments do not reduce society's resources. They transfer purchasing power from one group of consumers, those paying taxes, to another group of consumers, those receiving transfer payments and subsidies.

Another reason for reducing government spending is to make room for⁴ tax cuts.

Government intervention manifests itself in tax policy which is different in different countries. In the United Kingdom the government takes nearly 40 percent of national income in taxes. Some governments take a larger share, others a smaller share.

The most widely used progressive tax structure is the one in which the average tax rate rises with a person's income level. As a result of progressive tax and transfer system most is taken from the rich⁵ and most is given to the poor⁵.

Rising tax rates initially increase tax revenue but eventually result in such large falls in the equilibrium quantity of the taxed commodity or activity that revenue starts to fall again. High tax rates are said to reduce the incentive to work. If half of all we earn goes to the government, we may prefer to work fewer hours a week and spend more time in the garden or watching television.

Cuts in tax rates will usually reduce the deadweight tax burden⁶ and reduce the amount of taxes raised but might increase eventual revenue.

If governments wish to reduce the deadweight tax burden and balance spending and revenue, they are supposed to reduce government spending in order to cut taxes.

¹administration of justice – отправление правосудия

²in return – в ответ

³food stamps – продуктовые карточки, продовольственные талоны, по которым малоимущие граждане, как, например, в США, имеют право получать продукты питания в определенных магазинах, но не могут обменять их на деньги

⁴to make room for – зд. создать условия для

⁵the rich – богатые

the poor – бедные

⁵reduce the deadweight tax burden – снизить налоговое бремя

II. Студентам предлагается тема «Центральный банк и финансовые рынки», которую необходимо прочитать и перевести, используя Словарный комментарий к тексту Приложения № 1:

The Central Bank and Financial Markets

The Central Bank acts as a banker to the government and as a lender to commercial banks. It takes responsibility for the funding of the government’s budget deficit. It also controls money supply which includes currency outside the banking system and the sight deposits of the commercial banks.

A commercial bank borrows money from the public, crediting them with a deposit. In turn the bank lends money to firms and households wishing to borrow. The Central Bank can impose reserve requirements on commercial banks and set discount rate. Thus the Central Bank controls the money market.

Deposits are liabilities of a bank. The two most important kinds of deposits are sight deposits and time deposits. Sight deposits can be withdrawn on sight whenever the depositor wishes and they are not paid interest on. Before time deposits can be withdrawn, the depositor must give a minimum period of notification to the bank. Time deposits are usually paid interest on.

III. Студентам предлагается составить тему о своей будущей профессии, предоставив информацию о своем нынешнем статусе, занятиях, планах.

Примерный рассказ на тему My Future Profession

My name is … . I am … years old. I study at Belovo Institute (branch) of Kemerovo State University. I am a second-year student at Economics faculty. I am going to be an economist (accountant). At present I don’t work (I work at Company “…”, school, …). I dedicate all my (spare) time to studies.

We study many useful and interesting subjects such as statistics, economics, higher mathematics, computers. Our lecturers teach us to think in terms of production, consumption, allocation, price elasticity demand and so on. We enlarge our theoretical knowledge in order to put it later in practice. We realize that the study of economics is of great importance in a present-day situation of changing economic environment.

ВОПРОСЫ К ЗАЧЕТУ

1. Инфинитивная конструкция «сложное дополнение». Особенности перевода.

2. Особенности перевода слова due и сочетаний с ним.

3. Особенности перевода соединительного союза which.

4. Особенности перевода инфинитива в функции определения.

5. Особенности перевода предложений с вводящим словом there.

6. Особенности перевода инфинитивной конструкции «сложное подлежащее».

КОНТРОЛЬНАЯ РАБОТА №3

Предлагаемая контрольная работа содержит 10 вариантов. Номер варианта определяется в соответствии с порядковым номером студента в журнале. Каждый вариант контрольной работы предполагает выполнение следующих семи заданий:

1. Прочитайте и переведите текст.

2. Выпишите из текста предложения, содержащие инфинитивную конструкцию «сложное дополнение». Объясните особенности ее перевода.

3. Выпишите из текста сложноподчиненные предложения, содержащие соединительный союз which. Объясните особенности перевода выписанных Вами предложений.

4. Выпишите из текста предложения с вводящим словом there. Объясните особенности их перевода.

5. Выпишите из текста предложения, содержащие инфинитивную конструкцию «сложное подлежащее». Объясните особенности ее перевода.

6. Подчеркните в тексте все сказуемые и определите их видовременные формы.

Вариант 1

The second of the three economic issues is the question of income, that is, income distribution, the way in which income – that's what people earn – is distributed or shared around.

You, and your family, have an income. You have an annual income, that is, what you earn in a year. This income allows you to enjoy various goods and services. It means you have a certain standard of living. Your standard of living, of course, includes what you think of as necessary to your life, things like food, water, somewhere to live, health and education. But your income doesn't just cover the necessities of life. It also includes recreation, whether that's sport or TV or a holiday. Your income will be less than some of your neighbours', but it will be more than some of your other neighbours'. Your neighbours mean not just people living in your own country, but also people living in other countries.

Just as you and your family have an income, so nations, different countries, also have an income – the national income, it's often called. A national income is not the money the government gets. The national income is the sum total of the incomes of all the people living in that country, in other words, everyone's income added together. In the same way one can think of world income as the total of all the incomes earned by all the people in the world.

Concerning the distribution of national and world income, some questions are to be asked: who, in the world, gets what share of these incomes? The distribution of income, either in the world or in a country, tells us how income is divided between different groups or individuals. Table 1 shows the distribution of world income. There are three headings down the left-hand side of the table: income per head, percentage of world population and percentage of world income. In poor countries, like India, China and the Sudan, the income per head is only one hundred and fifty-five pounds per year. But at the same time, they have fifty point seven per cent of the world's population. These poor countries only have five per cent of the world's income.

In middle-income countries the income per head is eight hundred and forty pounds, that's in countries like Thailand and Brazil. In the major oil countries, like Kuwait and Saudi Arabia, it's seven thousand, six hundred and seventy. In industrial countries it's six thousand, two hundred and seventy.

Turning to middle-income countries again, they have twenty-five point one per cent of world population, with fourteen point two per cent of world income. The major oil countries have point four per cent of population, the industrial countries fifteen point six. The oil countries have one point five per cent of world income, the industrial countries sixty-four point eight.

Вариант 2

The economy comprises millions of people and thousands of firms as well as the government and local authorities, all taking decisions about prices and wages, what to buy, sell, produce, export, import and many other matters. All these organizations and the decisions they take play a prominent part in shaping the business environment in which firms exist and operate.

The economy is complicated and difficult to control and predict, but it is certainly important to all businesses. You should be aware that there are times when businesses and individuals have plenty of funds to spend and there are times when they have to cut back on their spending. This can have enormous implications for business as a whole.

When the economy is enjoying a boom, firms experience high sales and general prosperity. At such times, unemployment is low and many firms will be investing funds to enable them to produce more. They do this because consumers have plenty of money to spend and firms expect high sales. It naturally follows that the state of the economy is a major factor in the success of firms.

However, during periods when people have less to spend many firms face hard times as their sales fall. Thus, the economic environment alters as the economy moves into a recession. At that time, total spending declines as income falls and unemployment rises. Consumers will purchase cheaper items and cut expenditure on luxury items such as televisions and cars.

Changes in the state of the economy affect all types of business, though the extent to which they are affected varies. In the recession of the early 1990s the high street banks suffered badly. Profits declined and, in some cases, losses were incurred. This was because fewer people borrowed money from banks, thus denying them the opportunity to earn interest on loans, and a rising proportion of those who did borrow defaulted on repayment. These so-called "bad debts" cut profit margins substantially. Various forecasters reckoned that the National Westminster Bank's losses in the case of Robert Maxwell's collapsing business empire amounted to over £ 100 million.

No individual firm has the ability to control this aspect of its environment. Rather, it is the outcome of the actions of all the groups who make up society as well as being influenced by the actions of foreigners with whom the nation has dealings.

Вариант 3

In studying economics it is important to distinguish two branches of the subject. The first is known as "positive economics", the second as "normative economics".

Positive economics deals with objective or scientific explanations of the working of the economy. The aim of positive economics is to explain how society makes decisions about consumption, production, and exchange of goods. The purpose of this investigation is twofold: to satisfy our curiosity about why the economy works as it does, and to have some basis for predicting how the economy will respond to changes in circumstances.

Normative economics is very different. Normative economics offers prescriptions or recommendations based on personal value judgements.

In positive economics, we hope to act as detached scientists. Whatever our political persuasion, whatever our view about what we would like to happen or what we would regard as "a good thing", in the first instance we have to be concerned with how the world actually works. At this stage, there is no scope for personal value judgements. We are concerned with propositions of the form: if this is changed then that will happen. In this regard, positive economics is similar to the natural sciences such as physics, geology or astronomy.

Here are some examples of positive economics in action. Economists of widely differing political persuasions would agree that, when the government imposes a tax on a good, the price of that good will rise. The normative question of whether this price rise is desirable is entirely distinct. Similarly, there would be substantial agreement that the following proposition of positive economics is correct: favourable weather conditions will increase wheat output, reduce the price of wheat, and increase the consumption of wheat. Many propositions in positive economics would command widespread agreement among professional economists.

Of course, as in any other science, there are unresolved questions where disagreement remains. These disagreements are at the frontiers of economics. Research in progress will resolve some of the issues but new issues will arise and provide scope for further research.

Although competent and comprehensive research can in principle resolve many of the outstanding issues in positive economics, no corresponding claim can be made about the resolution of disagreement in normative economics.

Вариант 4

Withdrawals (or leakages) are that part of the circular flow, which are not passed on as spending with UK firms. This is income, which individuals, firms or governments take out of the circular flow with the likely result that the level of economic activity in the economy declines. The three forms that withdrawals can take are:

• Savings

• Imports

• Taxation

Savings.

Both businesses and individual citizens can take the decision not to spend all of the income that they receive. A number of factors are thought to determine the level of savings at any one time. Interest rates obviously influence the saver's decision since they represent the return on his or her savings. Many, economists believe that decisions to save are taken in response to periods of economic uncertainty: the more worried people are about interest rates, job security and so on, the more they are likely to save. Alternatively, there is evidence that when money is losing value quickly, as in a period of inflation, people tend to purchase consumer durable goods such as televisions and washing machines.

Another factor is social change. Previous generations placed great store by saving in order to carry out major purchases; this is less common today perhaps due to the ready availability of credit.

Imports.

You will know that expenditure by UK inhabitants on goods and services imported from abroad will remove those funds from the domestic circular flow and will cause a decrease in the level of economic activity. Periodically, the UK has spent too freely on imports and earnings from exports have been insufficient to cover this. Many factors encourage us to purchase imports: some are favourable to the economy in the long term, whilst others are harmful. If imports of raw materials increase due to the growth of a domestic industry, then this indicates an expanding economy, which should sell more exports in the future in order to pay for the increased expenditure. However, if the imports are the consequence of UK citizens preferring foreign goods on grounds of, for example, price or quality, then the impact may be harmful as jobs are lost in domestic industries.

Taxation.

Funds are withdrawn from the circular flow in the form of taxation by the government. It levies two types of tax:

• Direct taxes, such as income tax, corporation tax (on profits) and other taxes on income or wealth;

• Indirect taxes, such as VAT and customs and excise duties, which are levied on spending by all of us

If the authorities withdraw funds through taxation and then fail to spend this tax revenue, the circular flow will reduce the level of activity in the economy.

Taxation policy has been substantially altered by the Conservative government in the 1980s and early 1990s. It has reduced direct taxes because of the belief that taxation of this kind reduces the incentive to work and so dampens the spirit of enterprise in the economy. Indirect taxes, such as VAT, have been increased to make up for some of the revenue lost from direct taxes. The government has thus transferred the tax burden from direct to indirect taxes. The total burden of taxation has hardly altered.

Вариант 5

Inflation is generally defined as a persistent rise in the general price level with no corresponding rise in output, which leads to a corresponding fall in the purchasing power of money.

In this section we shall look briefly at the problems that inflation causes for business and consider whether there are any potential benefits for an enterprise from an inflationary period.

Inflation varies considerably in its extent and severity. Hence, the consequences for the business community differ according to circumstances. Mild inflation of a few per cent each year may pose few difficulties for business. However, hyperinflation, which entails enormously high rates of inflation, can create almost insurmountable problems for the government, business, consumers and workers. In post-war Hungary, the cost of living was published each day and workers were paid daily so as to avoid the value of their earnings falling. Businesses would have experienced great difficulty in costing and pricing their production while the incentive for people to save would have been removed.

Economists argue at length about the causes of, and "cures" for, inflation. They would, however, recognize that two general types of inflation exist:

• Demand-pull inflation

• Cost-push inflation

Demand-pull Inflation.

Demand-putt inflation occurs when demand for a nation's goods and services outstrips that nation's ability to supply these goods and services. This causes prices to rise generally as a means of limiting demand to the available supply.

An alternative way that we can look at this type of inflation is to say that it occurs when injections exceed withdrawals and the economy is already stretched (i.e. little available labour or factory space) and there is little scope to increase further its level of activity.

Cost-push Inflation.

Alternatively, inflation can be of the cost-push variety. This takes place when firms face increasing costs. This could be caused by an increase in wages owing to trade union militancy, the rising costs of imported raw materials and components or companies pushing up prices in order to improve their profit margins.

Вариант 6

Inflation can adversely affect business in a number of ways:

1. Accounting and financial problems.

Significant rates of inflation can cause accounting and financial problems for businesses. They may experience difficulty in valuing assets and stocks, for example. Such problems can waste valuable management time and make forecasting, comparisons and financial control more onerous.

2. Falling sales.

Many businesses may experience falling sales during inflationary periods for two broad reasons. Firstly, it may be that saving rises in a time of inflation. We would expect people to spend more of their money when prices are rising to avoid holding an asset (cash), which is falling in value. However, during the mid-1970s, when industrialized nations were experiencing high inflation rates, savings as a proportion of income rose! It is not easy to identify the reason for this, but some economists suggest that people like to hold a relatively high proportion of their assets in a form which can be quickly converted into cash when the future is uncertain. Whatever the reason, if people save more they spend less and businesses suffer falling sales. The economic model predicts that if savings rose the level of activity in the economy would fall. Clearly, if this happened we would expect businesses to experience difficulty in maintaining their levels of sales.

3. High interest rates.

Inflation is often accompanied by high interest rates. High interest rates tend to discourage investment by businesses as they increase the cost of borrowing funds. Thus, investment may fall. Businesses may also be dissuaded from undertaking investment programmes because of a lack of confidence in the future stability and prosperity of the economy. This fall in investment may be worsened by foreign investment being reduced as they also lose some confidence in the economy's future.

Such a decline in the level of investment can lead to businesses having to retain obsolete, inefficient and expensive means of production and cause a loss of international competitiveness. Finally, a fall in investment can lower the level of economic activity, causing lower sales, output and so on. Thus, to some extent, businesses can influence the economic environment in which they operate.

4. Higher costs.

During a bout of inflation firms will face higher costs for the resources they need to carry on their business. They will have to pay higher wages to their employees to compensate them for rising prices. Supplies of raw materials and fuel will become more expensive as will rents and rates. The inevitable reaction to this is that the firm has to raise its own prices. This will lead to further demands for higher wages as is called the wage-price spiral. Such cost-push inflation may make the goods and services produced by that enterprise internationally less competitive in terms of price. An economy whose relative or comparative rate of inflation is high may find that it is unable to compete in home or foreign markets because its products are expensive. The economic model tells us that a situation of declining exports and increasing imports will lower the level of activity in the economy with all the consequent side-effects.

Вариант 7

We would be simplifying the impact of inflation on business if we suggested that all effects were unfavourable. There is a school of thought, which argues that a low and stable rate of increase in the price level can be beneficial. It believes that a steady rise in money profits produces favourable expectations and induces investment as firms seek to expand. This action expands the economy as a whole. Paradoxically, inflation can also reduce the costs of businesses in the short run. Many enterprises incur costs, which are fixed for some period of time - for example, the rent of a factory may be fixed at a particular figure for a few years. At a time when the selling price of the firm's product, and hence its sales income, is rising this cost will be falling in real terms and thus stimulating the business.

There is a further argument that firms may be persuaded to borrow heavily in a period of inflation since the burden of repaying loans is reduced by inflation. If inflation is running annually at 10 per cent, for example, then the real value of the repayments of the loan will fall by approximately that amount each year. This may serve to encourage investment which, since it is an injection into the circular flow, will promote the level of activity. However, in these circumstances interest rates are likely to be high.

Government will accept that low rates of inflation are likely to exist in many economies. Inflation rates of 5 per cent or below are not considered to be too great a problem, especially if competitor nations are suffering similar rates.

In spite of the above, the conclusion must be drawn that inflation is, in general, harmful to business and its environment. Indeed, many economists would contend that inflation is the fundamental evil as its presence leads to lack of competitiveness and therefore relatively high unemployment and low rates of growth. This viewpoint has gained in credence in government circles over the last few years. It is for this reason that its control has been a major objective of government economic policy throughout the 1980s and early 1990s.

Вариант 8

The following story is going to explain the role of banks. In the past most societies used different objects as money. Some of these were valuable because they were rare and beautiful, others – because they could be eaten or used. Early forms of money like these were used to buy goods. They were also used to pay for marriages, fines and debts. But although everyday objects were extremely practical kinds of cash in many ways, they had some disadvantages, too. For example, it was difficult to measure their value accurately, divide some of them into a wide range of amounts, keep some of them for a long time, use them to make financial plans for the future. For reasons such as these, some societies began to use another kind of money, that is, precious metals.

People used gold, gold bullion, as money. Those were dangerous times, and people wanted a safe place to keep their gold. So they deposited it with goldsmiths, people who worked with gold for jewellery and so on and also had a guarded vault to keep it safe in. And when people wanted some of their gold to pay for things with, they went and fetched it from the goldsmith.

Two developments turned these goldsmiths into bankers. The first was that people found it a lot easier to give the seller a letter than it was to fetch some gold and then physically hand it over to him. This letter transferred some of the gold they had at the goldsmith's to the seller. This letter we would nowadays call a cheque. And, of course, once these letters or cheques, became acceptable as a way of paying for goods, people felt that the gold they had deposited with the goldsmith, was just as good as gold in their own pockets. And as letters or cheques, were easier to carry around than gold, and a lot less dangerous, people started to say that their money holdings were what they had with them plus their deposits. So a system of deposits was started. The second development was that goldsmiths realized they had a great deal of unused gold lying in their vaults doing nothing. This development was actually of greater importance than the first.

Now let's turn to the first bank loan ever and see what happened. A firm asked a goldsmith for a loan. The goldsmith realized that some of the gold in his vault could be lent to the firm, and of course he asked the firm to pay it back later with a little interest. Of course, at that moment the goldsmith was short of gold, it wasn't actually his gold, but he reckoned it was unlikely that everyone who had deposited gold with him would want it back at the same time, at any rate - not before the firm had repaid him his gold with a little interest. He thought it safe enough.

Вариант 9

Fundamental to all financial markets is the idea of earning a return on money. Money has to work for its owner. Here are some of the ways it can do so:

1. You deposit $1,000 with a bank, which pays you, say, 10 per cent a year interest. In other words, your $1,000 of capital earns you $100 a year, which is the return on your money. When you want your $1,000 back you get $1,000, plus any accumulated interest, not more or less. Provided your bank does not go bust, your $1,000 of capital is not at risk, except from inflation, which may reduce its purchasing power each year.

2. You buy gold bullion to a value of $1,000 because you think the price of gold will rise. If the price of gold has risen by 20% after a year, you can sell your gold for $1,200. You have made a profit or a capital gain, of $200 on your capital outlay of $1,000. In other words you have a return of 20% on your money. If the price of gold fails to move, you've earned nothing because commodities like gold do not pay interest.

3. You use your $1,000 to buy securities that are traded on a stockmarket. Usually these will be government bonds (known as gilt-edged securities or gilts in the UK) or ordinary shares in a company. The former always provide an income; the latter normally do. Traditional gilt-edged securities pay a fixed rate of interest. Ordinary shares in companies normally pay a dividend from the profits the company earns. If the company's profits rise, the dividend is likely to be increased; but there is no guarantee that there will be a dividend at all. If the company makes losses, it may have to cease paying a dividend.

But when you buy securities that are traded on a stockmarket, the return on your $1,000 is not limited to the interest or dividends you receive. The prices of these securities will also rise and fall, and your original $1,000 investment accordingly becomes worth more or less. So you are taking the risk of capital gains or capital losses.

Suppose you buy $1,000 worth of ordinary shares, which pay you a dividend of $40 a year. You are getting a return or dividend yield of 4% a year on your investment ($40 as a percentage of $1,000). If after a year the market value of your $1,000 of shares has risen to $1,100, you can sell them for a capital gain of $100 (or a 10% profit on your original outlay). Thus your overall return over a year consists of the $40 income and the $ 100 capital gain: a total of $140 or a 14% overall return on your original $1,000 investment.

Вариант 10

The Bank and the Money Supply

The narrowest measure Ml of the money supply is currency in circulation outside the banking system plus the sight deposits of commercial banks against, which the private sector can write cheques. Thus the money supply is partly a liability of the Bank (currency in private circulation) and partly a liability of commercial banks (checking accounts of the general public).

The Demand for Money

The demand for money is the quantity of liquid assets people are willing to have in hand at any given moment. It depends on the income they gain and the opportunity costs connected with the interest rate. But why do people hold money at all?

Money is a stock. It is the quantity of circulating currency and bank deposits held at any given time. Holding money is not the same as spending money when we buy a meal or go to the cinema. We hold money in order to spend it later.

The distinguishing feature of money is its use as a medium of exchange, for which it must also serve as a store of value. It is in these two functions of money that we must seek the reasons why people wish to hold it.

The Transactions Motive for holding money. In a monetary economy we use money to purchase goods and services and receive money in exchange for the goods and services we sell. Without money, making transactions by direct barter would be costly in time and effort. Holding money economizes on the time and effort involved in undertaking transactions. We need to hold money between receiving payments and making subsequent purchases.

How much money we need to hold depends on two things, the value of the transactions we wish to make and the degree of synchronization of our payments and receipts. We do not know how much $100 will buy until we know the price of goods. If all prices double, we will need to hold twice as much money to make the same transactions as before.

The demand for money is a demand for real money. We need a given amount of real money to undertake a given quantity of total transactions.

Семестр IV

Практические занятия № 16, 17.

План

1. Чтение и перевод текста страноведческого/ художественно-литературного характера.

2. Составление и презентация пересказа прочитанного текста.

3. Презентация тем «The Central Bank and Financial Markets» и «My Future Profession».

4. Содержание экзаменационного билета.

I. Внимательно прочитайте один из двух предложенных текстов. Постарайтесь выделить главные мысли, основную линию сюжета, главных героев, свое отношение к прочитанному.

MY LONDON

I'm not a native Londoner, of course, but having lived here for the last 25 years, I cer­tainly regard it as home. I took quite a long time to pack my bag, so I think I could still have chosen London as my Home even if my business wasn't here. London is special for me because there are so many parks and commons where one is able to take a long walk and be surrounded by greenery.

Regent's Park and Hyde Park are two of my favourite places, particularly for early morning walks in spring and summer. I like to go there about six o'clock in the morning when you can see all the wildlife and it's so quiet: all you can hear are the birds singing. At times like that it's really hard to believe that you're in the heart of a big city.

London is also remarkable for its restaurants. I would be prepared to say that it offers the widest range of ethnic cuisine in the world; every nationality under the sun is represented. Some are better than others, obviously, but you can eat extremely well here. However, I do feel that what is missing here is the little bistro. Bibendum in Fulham Road is one of my favourite restaurants, although, of its type, it's a little expensive for most people. The food is always absolutely superb there and if it were slightly cheaper it would be a perfect world!

British food has a bad name because it's been abused by people who don't know how to prepare it, but a good, well-cooked English meal is unbeatable, and that's a real strength at the Connaught where the food is very classical. I like the Connaught for its grandeur. The staff are very polished and attentive, and this is particularly noticeable in the game season when you can see them carving at the table. That's when you get a sense of the artistry of the job – they are not simply loading a plate, they are waiters rather than "plate porters".

London is very erudite city; there are so many theatres and museums that it must be a great source of inspiration to visitors who want to learn something. I can't think of any other capital in the world where so much culture is provided at so little cost; most of the museums here have free admission, and theatre tickets, compared with prices charged elsewhere, are still extremely cheap – tickets on Broadway must be about double the price. Entertainment is very good value here; I go to Ronnie Scott's some evenings if I'm not too tired and have a drink and listen to the jazz. It's a fantastic place and not overpriced.

I'm very fond of jazz but really I like most music. I also love ballet, so I make sure I get to see the Royal Ballet at Covent Garden once or twice a year. A trip to the ballet would definitely be part of my ideal day in London.

I’ve always felt that London is a very safe city and one in which you can wander around quite freely. The architecture here is very solid, nothing frivolous; it gives the impression that it was built for a purpose and not to entertain. But once you get inside, what a wonderful surprise – inside is on a par with what you would find in France or Italy, but you would never guess it from the facade. Maybe it's something to do with the famous British reserve!

THE SCHOOL-TEACHER

(After A. Cronin)

Three months passed. Little by little Andrew got used to this strange town, surrounded by the mountains, and to the people most of whom worked in the mines. The town was full of mines, factories, churches and small dirty old houses. There was no theatre, not even a cinema the workers could go to after work. But Andrew liked the people. They spoke little and worked much. They liked football, and what was more interesting, they were fond of music, good classical music. He often heard the sound of a piano, coming from this or that house.

It was clear to Andrew now, that Doctor Page would never see a patient again. Manson did all the work, and Mrs. Page received all the money. She paid out to Manson less than one sixth of that - twenty pounds and sixteen shillings a month. Almost all of it Andrew sent to the University to pay his debt. But at that time the question of money was not important to him. He had a few shillings in his pocket to buy cigarettes and he had his work, and that was more than enough for him. He had to work hard and to think much for he saw now that the professors at his University had given him very little to know about practical medicine.

He thought about all that walking in the direction of Riskin Street. There in Number 3 he found a small boy of nine years of age ill with measles.

"I am sorry, Mrs Howells," Andrew said to the boy's mother. "But you must keep Idris home from school¹." (Idris was Mrs Howells' other son.)

"But Miss Barlow says he may come to school."

"Oh? Who is Miss Barlow?"

"She is the teacher."

"Miss Barlow has no right to let him come to school when his brother has measles," Andrew said angrily.

Five minutes later he entered a classroom of the school. A very young woman of about twenty or twenty-two was writing something on the blackboard. She turned to him.

"Are you Miss Barlow?"

"Yes." Her large brown eyes were looking at him friendly.

"Are you Doctor Page's new assistant?"

Andrew reddened suddenly.

"Yes," he said, "I'm Doctor Manson. You know Idris' brother has measles and so Idris must not be here."

"Yes, I know, but the family is so poor and Mrs Howells is so busy. If Idris stays at home, he won't get his cup of milk. And, Doctor Manson, most of the children here have had measles already."

"And what about the others? You must send that boy home at once."

"Well, Doctor," she interrupted him suddenly. "Don't you understand that I'm the teacher of this class and here it's my word that counts²?"

"You can't have him here, Miss Barlow. If you don't send him home at once, I'll have to report you."

"Then report me, or have me arrested³ if you like." She quickly turned to the class. "Stand up, children, and say: 'Good-bye, Doctor Manson. Thank you for coming.'"

Before Andrew could say a word the door closed quietly in his face⁴.

¹ keep from school – не пускать в школу

² here it’s my word that counts – зд. здесь я хозяйка

³ have me arrested – пусть меня арестуют

⁴ in his face – зд. у него перед носом

II. Составьте пересказ в соответствии с предложенным планом:

The title of the text is …

The author of the text is…

This is an abstract (article) from a book (magazine, newspaper) …

The main characters are …

The story runs about …

The main issues discussed are…

The things that interested (impressed) me mostly are …

I liked (disliked) the story because …

The text (story) was easy to read because I read it in Russian (saw the film) / The text (story) was difficult to read because there were many new words and expressions.

Примерный вариант пересказа первого текста:

The text is entitled ‘My London’. I think this is an abstract from a book. The story runs about the capital of Great Britain, which the narrator regards as his Home though being not a native Londoner. The speaker tells us about parks and restaurants, theatres and museums. He admires greenery, food and culture of the city. We can feel his admiration in every word.

I liked the story, it was interesting to read because it represents informal picture of London rather than traditional dull description of sights which we usually read in text-books.

Примерный вариант пересказа второго текста:

The text is entitled ‘The school-teacher’. The author of the story is A. Cronin. This is an abstract from a book. The main characters are Doctor Manson and Miss Barlow. The story runs about a measles case in school. The main issues discussed are hard work, distinction between theory and practice, poverty and illness.

The things that impressed me mostly are the love of miners to good classical music and the sounds of a piano which could be heard from this or that house. I didn’t like the story because it tells us about sad events. The text was not difficult to read because there are dialogues which are easy to understand.

III. Студентам предоставляется возможность раскрыть тему «Центральный банк и финансовые рынки» в устном рассказе, а также повествовать о своей будущей профессии экономиста.

IV. Экзаменационный билет содержит три вопроса: 1) чтение и перевод текста экономического содержания; 2) чтение и перевод текста художественного/ страноведческого содержания; 3) монологическое высказывание по предложенной теме. Список экзаменационных тем дается в Приложении № 5. При подготовке к экзамену рекомендуется внимательно просмотреть Словарные комментарии к текстам Приложения № 1, а также сами тексты. Чем большим объемом экономической терминологии овладеет студент, тем более легким будет перевод первого экзаменационного текста. Приложения № 4 содержит рекомендации успешного перевода экзаменационного текста: советуется прочитать и овладеть методикой перевода до экзамена.

Приложение № 1.

Словарный комментарий к тексту Market and Command Economies

* Традиционно существительное goods в значении «товар, товары» употребляется только во множественном числе, напр., goods and services. В специальных экономических текстах это слово используется и в единственном числе, как обычное исчисляемое существительное.

economics n 1. экономическая наука; 2. экономика

economic adj 1. экономический; 2. экономически выгодный; рентабельный

economical adj 1. экономный, бережливый; 2. экономичный

economist n экономист

economize v экономить; экономно расходовать или использовать

economy n хозяйство, экономика

command economy – централизованно управляемая экономика; нерыночная экономика

free market economy – свободная рыночная экономика

mixed economy – смешанная экономика

society n 1. общество, общественный строй; 2. общество, орга­низация, ассоциация

produce v производить, вырабатывать

production n производство

demand n спрос; требование; запрос; потребность

demand for smth – спрос на что-л.

to be in high / low demand – пользоваться большим / небольшим спросом

good n товар, изделие

service n услуга

market n рынок

allocate v (smth to/ in smth, smb) 1. размещать, распределять (что-л. куда-л., кому-л.); 2. ассигновать (что-л. на что-л., кому-л.)

resource(s) n ресурс(ы), средства

consumption n потребление

through prep через; посредством; благодаря

price n цена

at high/ low prices – по высоким/ низким ценам; при высоких/ низких ценах

price for/ of a good – цена товара, цена на товар

plan v планировать

planning n планирование

decision n решение

to make a decision – принимать решение

rely v (on smb, smth) полагаться (на кого-л. или что-л.)

entirely adv полностью, всецело

government n правительство

intervention n вмешательство

government intervention – государственное вмешательство

level n уровень

at a certain level – на определенном уровне

restriction n ограничение

(the) former adj первый (из двух названных)

(the) latter adj последний (из двух названных); второй

regulation n регулирование

government regulation – государственное регулирование

both adj pron оба, обе; и тот и другой

importance n важность, значение

to be of importance – быть важным, иметь (большое) значение

Словарный комментарий к тексту Demand and Supply

quantity – n количество; размер; величина

buy – (bought [bo:t], bought) v покупать, приобретать

buyer – n покупатель

demand – v (smth) требовать (что-л.), нуждаться в (чем-л.)

supply – n предложение (товара)

excess supply – избыточное, чрезмерное предложение, перенасыщенность рынка

supply – v предлагать; снабжать; поставлять

to supply smb with smth – поставлять что-либо кому-либо

to supply smth to smb – снабжать кого-либо чем-либо

sell (sold [sould], sold) – v продавать(ся)

seller ['sela] n продавец

equilibrium – n равновесие, равновесное состояние, положение равновесия

equilibrium price – равновесная цена

producer – n производитель, изготовитель

consumer – n потребитель

consume – v потреблять

shortage – n дефицит, нехватка, недостаточность предложения (товаров)

raise – v повышать; увеличивать; поднимать

surplus – n избыток, излишек

reduce – v понижать; уменьшать; сокращать

reduction – n (in smth) снижение, уменьшение, сокращение (чего-л.)

influence – v (smth) оказывать влияние, влиять (на что-л.)

influence – n влияние, воздействие

income – n доход(ы), прибыль, поступления

increase – n (in smth) увеличение, рост, возрастание, прирост (чего-л.)

increase – v увеличивать(ся), повышать(ся); расти; усиливать(ся)

substitute good – товар-заменитель (спрос на который изменяется в противоположном направлении по сравнению со спросом на другой товар, цена на который изменилась)

substitute – n (for smth) заменитель (чего-л.)

decrease – n (in smth) уменьшение, понижение, снижение (чего-л.)

decrease – v уменьшать(ся), снижать(ся), убывать

complement good – товар-дополнение (спрос на который изменяется в том же направлении, что и спрос на некоторые другие товары, цены на которые измени­лись)

normal good – товар стандартного качества

inferior good – товар низкого качества

rise (rose [rouz], risen) – v подниматься; увеличиваться; возрас­тать

fall (fell [fel], fallen) – v падать; опускаться; понижаться

technology – n техника, технология

input – n вложение, вводимый ресурс, затраты, инвестиции

input price – цена ресурсов, цена основных средств производства

improvement – n улучшение, усовершенствование

improve – v улучшать(ся), усовершенствовать(ся)

impose – v (on, upon) устанавливать, облагать (налогом, пошлиной кого-л.), налагать (обязательства, штраф); возлагать (на кого-л.); навязывать (кому-л.)

private – а частный; личный; собственный

Словарный комментарий к тексту Theory of Demand

consumer demand – потребительский спрос

particular adj конкретный, частный, отдельный

vary v меняться, изменяться, варьировать

constant adj постоянный, неизменный; непрерывный

that is – то есть

relationship n отношение; взаимоотношения; связь

assume v предполагать, допускать

assumption n предположение, допущение

number n количество, число

a number of – некоторое количество, ряд

budget constraint – бюджетное ограничение (различные наборы товаров, которые могут быть куплены при данном размере дохода по средним рыночным ценам)

budget n бюджет

maximum n максимум, максимальное значение, высшая степень

maximize v доводить до максимальной величины, увеличивать до предела, максимизировать

maximization n максимизация

utility [ju:'tiliti] n полезность

marginal utility – предельная (маржинальная) полезность (дополнительная полезность, получаемая от потребления дополнительной единицы товаров или услуг)

prefer v (smth to smth) предпочитать (что-л. чему-л.), отдавать предпочтение

obtain v получать, добиваться

rather than – а не ...; скорее (что-то, чем что-то другое)

choice n выбор, отбор

choose (chose, chosen) v выбирать; предпочитать

provided cj часто provided that при условии что, в том случае если, если

maintain v поддерживать, сохранять

follow v (smb/smth) следовать (за кем-л., чём-л.), придерживаться (чего-л.), соблюдать (что-л.)

within prep в, в пределах, в рамках

additional adj дополнительный, добавочный

unit n единица

per [рз(:)] prep на, в (указывает на количество, приходящееся на определенную единицу)

per capita, per head – на человека, на душу населения

expenditure n расходы; сумма, израсходованная для оплаты товаров или услуг

result in v (smth) приводить к (чему-л.), кончаться (чем-л.)

market demand – рыночный спрос, требования рынка; общий объем товара, который требуется по конкретной цене в конкретный момент времени

depend [di'pend] v (on, upon) зависеть (от); обусловливаться

affect v (smth) воздействовать, влиять (на что-л.)

Словарный комментарий к тексту Theory of Supply

output n продукция; объем

profit n прибыль, доход

in terms of – в смысле; с точки зрения; в отношении; в переводе на

in terms of money – в денежном выражении

revenue n доход

marginal revenue – предельный, маржинальный доход (дополнительный доход, который получит производитель в результате продажи одной дополнительной единицы продукции)

costs n издержки, расходы

marginal costs – предельные, маржинальные издержки (дополнительные издержки при производстве дополнительной единицы продукции)

opportunity costs – альтернативные издержки (выгода, упущенная вследствие неиспользования экономического ресурса в наиболее доходной из всех возможных сфер и отраслей хозяйства)

earn v зарабатывать; приносить доход; быть рентабельным

expenses n затраты, издержки

use v пользоваться, использовать; употреблять

use n 1. употребление, применение; 2. польза

include v (smth in smth) включать (что-л. в состав чего-л.); содержать

to be included in smth – включаться во что-л., являться частью чего-л.

commodity n товар; продукт, предмет потребления

amount n количество; величина; сумма; объем

alternative adj альтернативный; другой

elsewhere adv где-нибудь в другом месте

in particular – в особенности, в частности

own v владеть, обладать, иметь

own adj собственный, свой собственный

owner n 1. собственник; 2. владелец

run (ran , run) v (smth) руководить; управлять (предприятием, учреждением); вести (дело)

business n предприятие; фирма

receive v получать

total adj полный; общий

corresponding adj соответственный; соответствующий

offer v (smth to smb) предлагать (что-л. кому-л.)

Словарный комментарий к тексту Factors of Production: Capital and Labour

as follows как следует ниже; следующий

following adj следующий; нижеперечисленный, нижеследующий

capital n капитал

physical capital – физический капитал (фактор производства, обычно представленный машинами, оборудованием и производственными зданиями)

financial capital – финансовый капитал (фактор произ­водства, обычно представленный деньгами)

human capital – человеческий капитал (умение и мастерство, общее или специальное, приобретенные человеком входе профессиональной подготовки и производственного опыта)

fixed capital – основные средства (капитал, вложенный в основные фонды предприятия, т.е. землю и здания, производственные сооружения, машины и оборудование, ин­вестиции в компании-филиалы)

circulating capital – оборотный капитал (часть капитала компании или другой организации, которая задействована в ее торговой деятельности)

labour n труд

labour force – рабочая сила; pl трудовые ресурсы; самодеятельное население; число работающих (напр. на предприятии)

natural adj естественный, природный

natural resources – природные ресурсы

nature n природа

to vary with – различаться в зависимости от; зависеть от

to vary from ... to ... – изменяться, колебаться (в пределах, от ... до ...)

variety n разнообразие

a variety of (factors) – ряд, множество (факторов)

various adj различный, разный; разнообразный

purpose n цель, намерение

for this purpose – с этой целью

equipment n оборудование

raw materials – сырье

raw adj сырой, необработанный

available adj наличный, имеющийся в наличии; (to smb) доступный (кому-л.)

availability n наличие

contribution n (to smth) вклад (во что-л.)

to make a contribution to science – сделать вклад (внести свою лепту) в науку

contribute v (to smth) делать вклад (во что-л.); содействовать, способствовать (чему-л.)

means of production – средства производства

machinery n машины; оборудование

durable adj длительного пользования

durable goods – товары длительного (долговременного) пользования

durables n товары длительного пользования

production process – производственный процесс

fuel n топливо, горючее

require v (smth) нуждаться (в чем-то), требовать (чего-л.)

required adj необходимый

requirement n требование; нужда, потребность

to meet the requirements – удовлетворять потребности; отвечать требованиям

wage(s) часто pl заработная плата

enterprise n промышленное предприятие; завод, фабрика

non-renewable adj невозобновляемый

non-renewable resources – невозобновляемые, истощимые ресурсы

ant renewable adj возобновляемый

to use up – израсходовать, использовать (полностью); истощить

production cycle – производственный цикл

value n стоимость (в денежном выражении); ценность

transfer v переносить, перемещать; переводить (деньги), перечислять (суммы); перевозить

final product – конечный продукт

investment n (in smth) – капиталовложение, помещение капитала, денег, инвестирование; инвестиция, вклад (во что-л.)

invest v (in smth) помещать, вкладывать деньги, капитал (во что-л.)

efficiency n эффективность; производительность; продуктивность

efficiency of labour – производительность труда

ant inefficiency n неэффективность

efficient adj эффективный, действенный; целесообразный

ant inefficient adj неэффек­тивный, малопроизводительный

like adj в грам. знач. предлога – подобно, как

unlike adj в грам. знач. предлога – в отличие от

manufacture v производить; изготовлять

manufacturing n производство

manufacturer n производитель; изготовитель; поставщик

management n управление

manage v руководить, управлять

manager n управляющий, руководитель; директор

employ v предоставлять работу; нанимать; использовать

employed adj имеющий работу (службу) (не безработный)

employed workers – занятые рабочие (не безработные)

employment n работа (по найму); занятость (рабочей силы)

full employment – полная занятость, отсутствие безработицы

unemployed adj безработный

unemployment n безработица

unemployment rate (тж. rate of unemployment) – уровень безработицы

production costs (тж. costs of production) – издержки производства

production cost (тж. cost of production) – себестоимость

cost n стоимость; pl расходы, издержки

cost v стоить, иметь стоимость

size [saiz] n размер(ы), величина; объем

population n население

trade union – профсоюз

job n работа

Словарный комментарий к тексту Factors of Production: Natural Resources and Land

ore n руда

iron ore – железная руда

oil n нефть; нефтепродукт

crop n сельскохозяйственное растение, сельскохозяйственная культура

supply n обычно pl. запасы, общее количество

supply v снабжать; поставлять; обеспечивать; давать

to supply a factory with raw materials – снабжать фабрику сырьем

provide v снабжать, обеспечи­вать; предоставлять, давать

to provide industry with resources – обеспечивать промышленность ресурсами

to provide resources for / to industry – поставлять ресурсы для промышленности, предоставлять ресурсы промышленности

incentive n стимул

disincentive n снижение побуждений или стремлений (к повышению производительности, эффективности производства, получению работы и т.п.)

to look for (smth) – искать (что-л.)

essential adj обязательный, необходимый; существенный; важнейший

meet [mi:t] (met [met], met) v удовлетворять; отвечать; соответствовать

to meet the demand – удовлетворять спрос

to meet the requirement – удовлетворять требованию; отвечать потребности

except [ik'sept] prep кроме; за исключением, исключая

besides [bi'saidz] prep кроме, помимо; adv кроме того

area n площадь, пространство, участок; район, область, зона

although сj хотя; несмотря на то, что

though cj хотя, несмотря на; все же; adv однако, тем не менее, все же

apply v использовать, применять, употреблять

fertilizer n удобрение

soil [soil] n почва

rent [rent] n рента, арендная плата; доход с недвижимости

so cj так что, поэтому; следовательно

degree n ступень, степень

to a great degree – в большой степени

housing n жилищное строительство

mining n горная промышленность; ведение горных работ, разработка (полезных ископаемых)

environment n окружающая среда

lease v брать в аренду, внаем, арендовать; (out) сдавать в аренду

lease n аренда, наем; сдача внаем

advantage n преимущество; превосходство

to get / have an advantage over / of smb – добиться / иметь преимущество над кем-л.

ant disadvantage n недостаток; невыгодное, неблагопри­ятное положение

to be at a disadvantage – быть в невыгодном положении

purchase n покупка, закупка; приобретение

purchase v покупать, приобретать

profitable adj прибыльный, выгодный, доходный, рентабельный

profitability n прибыльность, доходность, рентабельность

tenant n наниматель, арендатор, съемщик

business n дело; предпринимательство; экономическая, хозяйственная деятельность; бизнес

to vary in – различаться по (какому-л. признаку)

thoroughly adv тщательно, как следует

thorough adj тщательный, доскональный

condition n состояние, поло­жение; pl обстоятельства, условия

under good / bad condition(s) – в хороших / плохих условиях

farming n занятие сельским хозяйством, земледелие

Словарный комментарий к тексту Circular Flow of Payments and National Income

whole adv целый

as a whole – в целом

household n (условная) семья

gross domestic product (GDP) – валовой внутренний продукт (ВВП) (денежная стоимость всех товаров и услуг, произведенных в хозяйстве за определенный период)

gross adj валовой; совокупный

domestic adj внутренний; отечественный; местный

final goods – готовые изделия, готовая продукция

measure v измерять

measure n мера

way n образ действия; метод; способ

a way of doing smth – способ, которым делается что-л.

in some way – каким-либо способом

property n собственность, имущество

abroad adv за границей, за границу

gross national product (GNP) – валовой национальный продукт (ВНП) (ВВП плюс проценты, прибыли и дивиденды, полученные из-за рубежа)

while cj в то время как

average adj средний

standard of living; living standard – жизненный уровень

however adv однако, тем не менее

distribution n распределение

assets n фонды; имущество; активы

wear out (wore, worn) v изнашиваться

depreciation n 1. износ (оборудования), амортизация; 2. снижение стоимости; обесценивание

replace v (smth by / with smth) заменять (что-л. чём-л.) Coal was replaced by oil. – Уголь был заменен нефтепродуктами.

exist v существовать, быть

spending n расходы

since 1) prep and cj с, с тех пор как; 2) cj так как; поскольку

determine v определять, устанавливать

aggregate demand – совокупный спрос (совокупный спрос на все товары и услуги в экономике в какое-то определенное время)

make up (made, made) v составлять

considerable adj значительный; большой

add v (to smth) добавлять, прибавлять (к чему-л.)

tax n налог

taxation n налогообложение

fiscal policy – налоговая, фискальная, бюджетная политика (использование государственных расходов для воздействия на экономику государства в целом)

Словарный комментарий к тексту Taxes and Public Spending

result – результат

as a result – в результате

to result – происходить в результате

to result from – проистекать; обусловливаться чем-л.

to result in – приводить к чему-л.

most – 1. самый (употребляется перед прилагательными после the); 2. весьма, крайне (перед прилагательными после а и перед наречиями); 3. всего; всех (перед наречиями); 4. большинство, большая часть (перед существительными)

mostly – главным образом

that is – то есть

that is why – вот почему

so that – так, что(бы)

nо – никакой (употребляется перед существительными)

mainly adv главным образом, в основном

direct tax – прямой налог

indirect tax – косвенный налог (налог на товары или услуги, а не на частное лицо или компанию)

levy v 1. облагать налогом; 2. собирать, взимать налоги

to levy a tax on smb – облагать кого-л. налогом, взимать налог с кого-л.

value added tax (VAT) – налог на добавленную стоимость (НДС)

sales tax – налог с оборота, налог на продажи (производители платят его, когда изделия считаются законченным товаром; оптовики – при продаже товара розничному продавцу; розничные продавцы – при продаже товара покупателям)

state n государство

retirement pension – пенсия за выслугу лет

contribution n взнос

a contribution to a fund – взнос в фонд

social security fund – фонд социального обеспечения (государственный фонд для выплаты пособий по болезни и безработице, пенсий, пособий женщинам и детям)

borrowing n заимствование

borrow v (smth from smb) брать взаймы (что-л. у кого-л.), одалживать (что-л. у кого-л.)

comprise v (smth) включать (что-л.), состоять (из чего-л.)

transfer payment – переводной платеж (произведенный платеж, который не связан с оплатой товаров и услуг, например, пенсии, пособия по безработице, субсидии фермерам и т.д.)

pay (paid, paid) v (for smth) платить (за что-л.)

public goods – общественный товар, товар общественного пользования (благо, к которому одновременно имеют доступ все люди в данной экономике)

still cj всё же; тем не менее; однако

national defenсe – национальная оборона

unemployment benefit – пособие по безработице

cut (cut, cut) v сокращать, снижать; уменьшать; урезывать

cut n сокращение, снижение; уменьшение

reason ['ri:zn] n (for smth) причина (чего-л.)

for some reason – по какой-л. причине

exhaust v истощать, исчерпывать

productively adv производительно, продуктивно

productive а производительный; производственный

whereas cj тогда как, в то время как

purchasing power – покупательная способность (стоимость денег, измеряемая в соответствии с количеством товара, который можно на них приобрести)

nearly adv почти; чуть не

share n доля, часть

tax rate – норма (ставка) налога (налогообложения) (налог, взимаемый на единицу облагаемой налогом суммы, выражаемый в процентном отношении, например, налог $5 на сумму в $100 значит, что ставка налога составляет 5%)

initially adv с самого начала, вначале; первоначально

initial а начальный, первоначальный; исходный

tax revenue – налоговые поступления, доходы от налогов

eventually adv в конечном счете, в итоге, в конце концов

eventual а конечный, окончательный

to tax v (smth) облагать налогом (что-л.)

taxed commodity or activity – продукция или деятельность, облагаемая налогом

syn. taxable а подлежащий обложению налогом

raise v собирать, взимать (налоги, плату)

Словарный комментарий к тексту The Central Bank and Financial Markets

currency n – валюта

deposit n – вклад в банке; депозит

deposit v – класть в банк, депонировать, отдавать на хранение

sight deposit – счет до востребования; текущий счет

time deposit – срочный вклад

to withdraw (withdrew, withdrawn) a deposit – изымать вклад; взять вклад из банка

lend (lent, lent) v – давать взаймы, одалживать (что-л. кому-л.)

lender n – кредитор

responsibility n – ответственность

to take responsibility for smth – взять на себя ответственность за что-л.

budget deficit – бюджетный дефицит (превышение государственных расходов над государственными доходами, которое должно покрываться либо за счет займов, либо путем денежной эмиссии)

money supply – денежная масса в обращении; денежное предложение (количество денег, выпущенных в стране, обычно центральным банком)

outside – вне; за пределами

thus – следовательно, итак, в соответствии с этим; так, таким образом

reserve requirements – процент резерва, т.е. отношение денежной суммы, которая должна храниться на резервном счете в банке, к объему вкладов до востребования

discount rate – учетная ставка

liability n – обязательство; долги; денежные обязательства; задолженность

on sight – по предъявлении (без предварительного уведомления)

interest n – (ссудный) процент; проценты, процентный доход

Приложение № 2.

List of irregular verbs

СПИСОК НЕПРАВИЛЬНЫХ ГЛАГОЛОВ

Приложение № 3.

Количественные числительные

1 – one 11 – eleven 21 – twenty-one 30 – thirty-one 50 – fifty

2 – two 12 – twelve 22 – twenty-two 30 – thirty-two 60 – sixty

3 – thre 13 – thirteen 23 – twenty-three 30 – thirty-three 70 – seventy

4 – four 14 – fourteen 24 – twenty-four 30 – thirty-four 80 – eighty

5 – five 15 – fifteen 25 – twenty-five 30 – thirty-five 90 – ninety

6 – six 16 – sixteen 26 – twenty-six 30 – thirty-six 100 – one hundred

7 – seven 17 – seventeen 27 – twenty-seven 30 – thirty-seven 1000 – one

8 – eight 18 – eighteen 28 – twenty-eight 30 – thirty-eight thousand

9 – nine 19 – nineteen 29 – twenty-nine 30 – thirty-nine 1000000 – one

10 – ten 20 – twenty 30 – thirty 40 – forty million

Порядковые числительные

1 – the first 11 – the eleventh 21 – the twenty- first 40 – the fortieth

2 – the second 12 – the twelfth 22 – the twenty- second 50 – the fiftieth

3 – the third 13 – the thirteenth 23 – the twenty- third 60 – the sixtieth

4 – the forth 14 – the fourteenth 24 – the twenty-forth 70 – the seventieth

5 – the fifth 15 – the fifteenth 25 – the twenty-fifth 80 – the eightieth

6 – the sixth 16 – the sixteenth 26 – the twenty-sixth 90 – the ninetieth

7 – the seventh 17 – the seventeenth 27 – the twenty-seventh

8 – the eighth 18 – the eighteenth 28 – the twenty-eighth

9 – the ninth 19 – the nineteenth 29 – the twenty-ninth

10 – the tenth 20 – the twentieth 30 – the thirtieth

Приложение № 4.

РЕКОМЕНДАЦИИ СТУДЕНТАМ

КАК БЫТЬ УСПЕШНЫМ ПРИ ПЕРЕВОДЕ ЭКЗАМЕНАЦИОННОГО ТЕКСТА

1. Главной задачей всякого перевода является точная передача со­держания подлинника средствами родного языка с соблюдением строя последнего и, по возможности, с сохранением стиля ориги­нала. Переводя иноязычный текст, нужно постоянно спрашивать себя: допустимо ли в русском языке то или иное словосочетание, оборот? Надо строить предложение так, как это свойственно русскому языку. Поэтому можно при литературной обработке перевода выбрасывать "лишние" слова, или, наоборот, добавлять нужные, эквива­лента которым нет в подлиннике.

2. Прежде всего, необходимо просмотреть весь текст (без использования словаря). После того, как понято общее содержание текста, можно обратиться к словарю и выяснить с его помощью значение узко­специальных слов и выражений, которые не были поняты после первого прочтения.

3. От­крыв словарь на нужной странице, нужно брать не первое попавшееся зна­чение найденного слова, а задуматься о том, какое значение из перечисленных в словарной статье подходит по кон­тексту.

4. Значительные трудности при переводе с английского на русский язык вызывает многозначность слов, когда бывает непросто подо­брать нужное значение слова для данного контекста.

Обратите внимание: представление о переводе как о простой замене слов одного языка словами-эквивалентами из другого язы­ка – ошибочно, так как большинство слов в английском и русском языках многозначно, и вся система такого многозначного слова не может совпадать с системой значений слова другого языка. Переводу подлежат не слова, а понятия и значения слов.

5. Следует помнить, что одна и та же словоформа повторяется в словаре несколько раз; она может выступать в качестве различных частей речи: глагол, существительное, прилагательное, наречие, каждая из которых может иметь самостоятельное значение. Необходимо подобрать то значение, кото­рое соответствует общему содержанию текста (понять это содержа­ние помогает первое прочтение) и вписывается в контекст предложе­ния.

6. Также следует помнить о том, что слова в словаре даются в их исходной форме, т. е. глаголы – в инфинитиве (неопределенная фор­ма), существительные – в единственном числе и т.д. Значит, стоит подумать, не следует ли каким-то образом преобразовать встречен­ное в тексте слово, прежде чем искать его в словаре?

7. Текст нельзя рассматривать как простую сумму предложе­ний, которые достаточно просто перевести одно за другим для того, чтобы все понять. Надо уяснить общее содержание текста, смыс­ловые связи текста в целом и каждого предложения в отдельно­сти, последовательность развития мысли автора, установить причинные, временные и другие виды связей в подлиннике.

Приложение № 5.

Экзаменационные темы

MY FAMILY AND ME

My name is … . I am … years old. I study at Belovo Institute (branch) of Kemerovo State University. I am a first-year student at Economics faculty. I am going to be an economist. At present I work at Company “…”, (school, library, …). I am a shop-assistant (secretary, accountant, …). I dedicate all my spare time to studies. My hobby is listening to music, dancing, playing football. My family is large: my husband, my daughter, two sons and me.

My husband’s name is … . He is … years old. He woks at school (open-cast mine, hospital, railway station). He is a teacher (miner, doctor, militiaman, driver). His hobbies are hunting, fishing and gardening. My daughter’s name is … . She is … years old. She goes to kindergarten (school). She likes drawing, playing badminton (ping-pong), watching cartoons. My sons’ names are … . They are … and … years old. They go to kindergarten (school). The eldest like to play computer games and read books. The youngest is fond of music (sports: football, basketball, hockey). We spend a lot of time together: we like to travel by car in our region and neighbor-regions. Sometimes we travel by train to see our relatives and friends. Sometimes we travel by plane to the capital of our country and abroad.

ECONOMIC SYSTEMS

Economics is a science that analyzes what, how and for whom society produces. The central economic problem is to reconcile people’s unlimited demands with society’s ability to produce goods and services. Market is the process by which production and consumption are coordinated through prices.

In a command economy government planning office makes decisions on what, how and for whom to produce. Resources are allocated by central government planning. Free market economies have no government intervention. Resources are allocated entirely through markets. Mixed economies rely mainly on market but with a large doze of government regulation.

THEORY OF DEMAND

Consumer demand is the quantity of a particular good that an individual consumer wants and is able to buy as the price varies. Factors influencing demand for a good are the prices of other goods, consumer income and a number of non-economic factors, such as social, physiological, demographic characteristics of the consumer in question.

The theory of demand is based on the assumption that the consumer having budget constraints seeks to reach the maximum possible level of utility. The consumer has to choose the specific goods within the limits imposed by his budget.

A price increase will result in a reduction in the quantity demanded. At low prices the demanded quantity is higher. This relationship between the quantity demanded of a good and its price is called the law of demand.

Market demand is the quantity of a good that all consumers in a particular market want and are able to buy as the price varies. Market demand depends on the number of consumers in the market as well as on all factors influencing individual demand.

THEORY OF SUPPLY

The theory of supply is the theory of how much output firms choose to produce. The principal assumption of the supply theory is that the producer will maintain the level of output at which he maximizes his profit. Profit is the revenue from selling the output minus the costs of inputs used.

Aiming to get higher profits, firms obtain each output level as cheaply as possible. Profits are the highest at the output level at which marginal cost is equal to marginal revenue, that is, to the market price of the output.

When prices are high the supplied quantity is high as well. At low prices the supplied quantity is low. The optimal supply quantity depends on the output prices, the input costs, technology, degree of government regulation, environment, etc.

Market supply is the quantity of a commodity that all firms in a particular market offer as the price varies. Market supply is important for making economic forecasts.

FACTORS OF PRODUCTION

Factors of production are resources used by firms as inputs for a good or service to be produced. They are: capital, labour and natural resources.

Capital refers to goods and money used to produce more goods and money. Physical capital is land, buildings, equipment, raw materials. Financial capital is bonds, stocks and available bank balances. Human capital is knowledge that contributes “know-how” to production.

Labour is an effort needed to satisfy human needs. Productive labour produces physical objects having utility. Unproductive labour does not produce material wealth but is also useful.

Natural resources are raw materials such as iron ore, timber, oil, water for crops and power production, forests and animals and productive activity made by land.

Factors of production are combined together in different proportions in order to produce output. One should choose the combination of factors which minimizes the cost of production and increases profit.

CIRCULAR FLOW OF PAYMENTS AND NATIONAL INCOME

The circular flow of income is the process when firms provide income for households, who in turn use this money to purchase goods and services produced by firms thus returning money to the firms.

The gross domestic product is the total money value of all final goods produced in the domestic economy within a year. The GDP plus property income from abroad make the gross national product. The GNP is an important measure of a country’s economic well-being.

Depreciation is the process when assets wear out in the production either physically or become obsolete. When we subtract depreciation from the GNP we arrive at national income.

MY FUTURE PROFESSION

My name is … . I am … years old. I study at Belovo Institute (branch) of Kemerovo State University. I am a second-year student at Economics faculty. I am going to be an economist (accountant). At present I don’t work (I work at Company “…”, school, …). I dedicate all my (spare) time to studies.

We study many useful and interesting subjects such as statistics, economics, higher mathematics, computers. Our lecturers teach us to think in terms of production, consumption, allocation, price elasticity demand and so on. We enlarge our theoretical knowledge in order to put it later in practice. We realize that the study of economics is of great importance in a present-day situation of changing economic environment.

THE CENTRAL BANK AND FINANCIAL MARKETS

The Central Bank acts as a banker to the government and as a lender to commercial banks. It takes responsibility for the funding of the government’s budget deficit. It also controls money supply which includes currency outside the banking system and the sight deposits of the commercial banks.

A commercial bank borrows money from the public, crediting them with a deposit. In turn the bank lends money to firms and households wishing to borrow. The Central Bank can impose reserve requirements on commercial banks and set discount rate. Thus the Central Bank controls the money market.

Deposits are liabilities of a bank. The two most important kinds of deposits are sight deposits and time deposits. Sight deposits can be withdrawn on sight whenever the depositor wishes and they are not paid interest on. Before time deposits can be withdrawn, the depositor must give a minimum period of notification to the bank. Time deposits are usually paid interest on.

Распределение заданий дисциплины «Английский язык» по семестрам:

I семестр

6 практических занятий

Контрольная работа № 1

Зачетная тема «My Family and Me»

II семестр

4 практических занятия

Контрольная работа № 2

Зачетная тема «Economic Systems»

III семестр

6 практических занятий

Контрольная работа № 3

Зачетная тема «Theory of Demand»

IV семестр

2 практических занятий

Экзамен

Содержание экзаменационного билета

1. Переведите текст страноведческого содержания с использованием словаря. На подготовку дается 30 мин.

2. Прочитайте текст экономической тематики и кратко передайте его содержание на английском языке. На подготовку дается 40 мин.

3. Сообщение по теме (см. Список экзаменационных тем).

Содержание

Пояснительная записка………………………………………......3

Практическое занятие №1……...…………………….……..……4

Практическое занятие №2……………..…………………….….10

Практическое занятие №3……………………………….…..….12

Практическое занятие №4…………………………………...….16

Практическое занятие №5…………………………………...….17

Практическое занятие №6…………………………………...….21

Вопросы к зачету………………………..…………………….…23

Контрольная работа №1…………………………………….…...24

Практическое занятие №7…………………………………....….34

Практическое занятие №8…………………………………....….35

Практическое занятие №9………………..……………………...39

Вопросы к зачету………………………………………....………41

Контрольная работа №2……………..……………………..…….41

Практическое занятие №10…………..……………………...…..50

Практическое занятие №11……………...……………………....53

Практическое занятие №12……………...……………………....54

Практическое занятие №13……………...……………………....57

Практическое занятие №14…………..….……………………....59

Практическое занятие №15……………………………..…...…..61

Вопросы к зачету………………………..…………………….....64

Контрольная работа №3……………………………..……..……64

Практическое занятие №16,17…………..……………………...73

Приложение 1……………………………………………………77

Приложение 2…………………………………….…….……......89

Приложение 3…………………………………….……………...92

Приложение 4………………………………….……………..….93

Приложение 5………………………………………………...….94

Распределение заданий дисциплины «Английский язык» по семестрам……………………………………………………..….98

Содержание экзаменационного билета………………………...99

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Тираж 100 экз

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АЛЬБИНА НИКОЛАЕВНА ШАБАЛИНА,

КАНДИДАТ ФИЛОЛОГИЧЕСКИХ НАУК,

СТАРШИЙ ПРЕПОДАВАТЕЛЬ

КАФЕДРЫ ЛИНГВИСТИКИ

(АУДИТОРИЯ 403)

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