II. A Historical Outline

A course on linguistics usually follows one of the general models, or theories, of natural language, as well as the corresponding methods of interpretation of the linguistic phenomena.

A comparison with physics is appropriate here once more. For a long time, the Newtonian theory had excluded all other methods of interpretation of phenomena in mechanics. Later, Einstein’s theory of relativity incorporated the Newtonian theory as an extreme case, and in its turn for a long time excluded other methods of interpretation of a rather vast class of phenomena. Such exclusivity can be explained by the great power of purely mathematical description of natural phenomena in physics, where theories describe well-known facts and predict with good accuracy the other facts that have not yet been observed.

In general linguistics, the phenomena under investigation are much more complicated and variable from one object (i.e., language) to another than in physics. Therefore, the criteria for accuracy of description and prediction of new facts are not so clear-cut in this field, allowing different approaches to coexist, affect each other, compete, or merge. Because of this, linguistics has a rich history with many different approaches that formed the basis for the current linguistic theories.

Let us give now a short retrospective of the development of general linguistics in the twentieth century. The reader should not be worried if he or she does not know many terms in this review not yet introduced in this book. There will be another place for strict definitions in this book.

The structuralist approach

At the beginning of the twentieth century, Ferdinand de Saussure had developed a new theory of language. He considered natural language as a structure of mutually linked elements, similar or opposed to each other. Later, several directions arose in general linguistics and many of them adhered to the same basic ideas about language. This common method was called structuralism, and the corresponding scientific research (not only in linguistics, but also in other sciences belonging to the humanities) was called structuralist.

Between the 1920’s and the 1950’s, several structuralist schools were working in parallel. Most of them worked in Europe, and European structuralism kept a significant affinity to the research of the previous periods in its terminology and approaches.

Meantime, American structuralists, Leonard Bloomfield among them, made claims for a fully “objective” description of natural languages, with special attention to superficially observable facts. The order of words in a sentence was considered the main tool to become aware of word grouping and sentence structures. At this period, almost every feature of English seemed to confirm this postulate. The sentences under investigation were split into the so-called immediate constituents, or phrases, then these constituents were in their turn split into subconstituents, etc., down to single words. Such a method of syntactic structuring was called the phrase structure, or constituency, approach.