Types of connection between an apposition and its headword

§ 91. From the point of view of their relation to the headword, appositions, like attributes, are subdivided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones.

Non-detached appositions

§ 92. Non-detached appositions form one sense group with their headword and very often enter into such close relation with it that the two words form one whole. This is especially true in the case of titles, military ranks, professions, kinship terms, geographical denotations, etc., used as apposition.

Sir Peter, Mr Brown, Doctor Watson, Colonel Davidson, Uncle Podger, Mount Everest, the River Thames.

Being very closely connected with each other such appositions and their headwords may be treated as indivisible word-groups.

Detached appositions

§ 93. Detached, or loose appositions form separate sense groups and are wider in their meaning than close appositions: they may give identification, explanation, etc., especially when referring to pronouns. They may follow the headword immediately or be separated from it.

He actually envied Jolyon the reputation of succeeding where he, Soames, had failed.

Cooper was three inches taller than Mr Warburton, a strong, muscular young man.

An apposition may also refer to a clause or a sentence, usually as an explanatory remark.

The night was muggy, a bit drizzly, windless, and very dark - the ideal conditions for a gas bombardment

The adverbial modifier

§ 94. The adverbial modifier (or the adverbial) is a secondary part of the sentence which modifies another part of the sentence expressed either by a verb (in a finite or non-finite form), or an adjective, or a stative, or an adverb.

In case it modifies a verb the adverbial characterizes the action or process expressed by the verb and denotes its quality, quantity, or the whole situation.

The adverbial modifier may refer to:

a) The predicate-verb or to a verbal phrase.

J ohn spoke in a whisper.

B owen read the telegram aloud.

b)The whole of the sentence, especially if placed at the beginning of the sentence.

I n the evening they gathered together again.

If an adverbial modifies a non-finite form, it becomes part of a gerundial, participial, or infinitive phrase or construction.

Felicity fell to the ground and after lying still for a moment began to crawl forward.

Scobie watched the bearers go slowly up the hill, their bare feet very gently flapping the ground.

Adverbials modifying adjectives, statives and adverbs usually denote degree or quantity. These adverbials modify:

a) Adjectives in their attributive or predicative f u n с t i о n .

I t was a very long story.

T he story was extremely long.

H e is six feet tall.

b) Statives in their predicative function

I am quite aware of the situation.

c) Adverbs in their main function as an adverbial.

Y ou speak English rather fluently.

Obligatory and non-obligatory adverbial modifiers

§ 95. Adverbials are structurally more independent of the verb than objects. Their use is often optional. However, when introduced into the sentence, adverbials are of great communicative value. Thus in the sentence Professor Brown is leaving for London to-morrow, both adverbials for London and to-morrow give important pieces of information, although grammatically the sentence Professor Brown is leaving is complete.

Adverbials are obligatory when the sentence structure demands one or when their absence changes the meaning of the verb. This is the case:

a) After the verbs to behave, to act, to treat.

He behaved bravely. * He behaved has no sense.

The Murdstones treated David cruelly. - Мердстоны жестоко обращались с Давидом.

The doctor treated David - доктор лечил Давида.

b) After statal and durative verbs, such as to live, to dwell, to wait, to last, to weigh.

John lives in London. (John lives has a different meaning: 'he exists', 'he is alive'.)

The lecture lasted two hours.

c) After transitive verbs implying direction, such as to put, to take, to send.

Put the book on the shelf.

Take these letters to the post-office.

d) After intransitive verbs of motion and position in space, such as to come, to go, to arrive, to return, to step, to sit, to lie, to stand.

Brett went to the dressing-room.

Robert was standing at the window.

The absolute use of the above verbs, that is without adverbials, is possible if the speaker is interested in the process itself or if the use of an adverbial is unnecessary because of the situation.

He was too weak to stand.

Everybody has come.

e) When an adverbial influences the meaning of a verb form.

I am going to the library to-morrow, ('am going' denotes intention, not an action).

f) When its absence changes the meaning of the rest of the sentence.

Can you speak English without making mistakes? I've never been there since my childhood.

Non-obligatory adverbials are those which are not necessary for the structure of the sentence. They neither influence the meaning of the verb form, nor change the structure or the meaning of the rest of the sentence, no matter how important they are from the communicative viewpoint.

She left the room without saying a word.

Before speaking he pressed the bell at his side.