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- •§ 68. The object can be expressed by:
- •Types of object
- •§ 69. From the point of view of their value and grammatical peculiarities, four types of objects can be distinguished in English:
- •Indirect object
- •§ 70. The direct object is used irrespective of the absence or presence of other objects attached to the same verb.
- •§ 71. The most usual position of the direct object is that immediately After the predicate verb it refers to.
- •§ 72. The direct object comes before the predicate verb it refers to in the following cases:
- •§ 74. The indirect recipient object is generally used together with the direct object and precedes it (see the examples above).
- •Indirect recipient objects
- •§ 75. As to their form and position the following cases must be distinguished:
- •§ 76. Sometimes the indirect recipient object may be placed before the predicate verb. This occurs in the following cases:
- •§ 79. There is another use of it as a formal object: it can be attached to transitive or intransitive verbs to convey a very vague idea of some kind of an object.
- •§ 80. The verbs that most frequently take a cognate object are:
- •The attribute
- •Ways of expressing attributes
- •The position of attributes
- •§ 86. The position of an attribute depends on the following:
- •Types of connection between an attribute and its headword
- •§ 87. From the point of view of their connection with the headword and other parts of the sentence, attributes may be divided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones.
- •The apposition
- •§ 90. An apposition is a part of the sentence expressed by a noun or nominal phrase and referring to another noun or nominal phrase (the headword), or sometimes to a clause.
- •Types of connection between an apposition and its headword
- •§ 91. From the point of view of their relation to the headword, appositions, like attributes, are subdivided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones.
- •The adverbial modifier
- •Obligatory and non-obligatory adverbial modifiers
- •Detached adverbial modifiers
- •§ 98. From the point of view of its structure the adverbial modifier may be simple, phrasal, complex, clausal.
- •Semantic classes of adverbial modifiers
- •§ 100. This adverbial expresses:
- •§ 101. The adverbial of time has four variations:
- •§ 104. This adverbial answers the identifying questions what for? for what purpose? It is most frequently expressed by an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or complex.
- •§ 108. These adverbials have no identifying questions.
- •§ 111. This adverbial is expressed by a noun denoting a unit of measure {length, time, weight, money, temperature).
- •§ 112. This adverbial is expressed by nouns or prepositional phrases introduced by the prepositions but, except, save, but for, except for, save for, apart from, aside from, with the exclusion of
- •Independent elements op the sentence
The apposition
§ 90. An apposition is a part of the sentence expressed by a noun or nominal phrase and referring to another noun or nominal phrase (the headword), or sometimes to a clause.
The apposition may give another designation to, or description of, the person or non-person, or else put it in a certain class of persons or non-persons. In the latter case it is similar to an attribute, as it characterizes the person or non-person denoted by the headword.
Beyond the villa, a strange-looking building, began the forest.
He had remembered her at once, for he always admired her, a very pretty creature.
He knows about everything - a man of the world.
The whole thing was indescribable - a terrific spectacle, a stupendous symphony of sound.
Like the attribute, the apposition may be in preposition or postposition.
However, unlike the attribute, which is always subordinated to its headword and is usually connected with other parts in the sentence only through it, words in apposition are, at least syntactically, coordinated parts, that is, both the headword and the apposition are constituents of the same level in the sentence. This may be illustrated by two possible types of transformation of sentences with words in apposition.
Mr. Smith, the local doctor, The local doctor, Mr. Smith,
was known to everybody was known to everybody.
However, an apposition can rarely replace the headword in the sentence. Substitution is possible only if the apposition meets the following conditions:
1. It denotes the same person or non-person as the headword.
Winterbourne was back on the Somme, that incredible desert, pursuing the. retreating enemy.
If it puts the person or non-person in a certain class of persons or nonpersons, no substitution is possible. Thus the sentence Mr. Smith, a local doctor, was known to everybody cannot be transformed into the sentence *A local doctor was known to everybody.
2. It is expressed by words of the same morphological class as its headword. Otherwise the apposition may be unacceptable in the structure of the sentence because of its grammatical or lexical meaning. This can be illustrated by the sentence: She was seized by a gust of curiosity to see that wife of his, which does not allow the substitution of the apposition for the headword *She was seized by a gust of to see that wife of his.
3. It follows the headword immediately and has no dependent words which may hinder substitution. Otherwise, the dependent words may block the connection and make the apposition unacceptable in the structure of the sentence. Thus, the sentence John, at that time a student, wrote several articles on architecture cannot be transformed into At that lime a student wrote several articles on architecture, for it changes the meaning of the sentence altogether.
The sentences discussed above show the peculiarity of the appositive relation: although it resembles coordination syntactically (in that the headword and the apposition are constituents of the same level within the sentence), communicatively they are not of the same rank.
Appositions may be joined by a coordinating conjunction, or follow one another asyndetically. In both cases appositions refer directly to the headword.
Dr and Mrs Macphail were left alone.
A man of action and a born leader, now forced into a state of thought, he was unhappy.
A daughter of poor but honest parents, I have no reason to be ashamed of my origins.