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- •§ 68. The object can be expressed by:
- •Types of object
- •§ 69. From the point of view of their value and grammatical peculiarities, four types of objects can be distinguished in English:
- •Indirect object
- •§ 70. The direct object is used irrespective of the absence or presence of other objects attached to the same verb.
- •§ 71. The most usual position of the direct object is that immediately After the predicate verb it refers to.
- •§ 72. The direct object comes before the predicate verb it refers to in the following cases:
- •§ 74. The indirect recipient object is generally used together with the direct object and precedes it (see the examples above).
- •Indirect recipient objects
- •§ 75. As to their form and position the following cases must be distinguished:
- •§ 76. Sometimes the indirect recipient object may be placed before the predicate verb. This occurs in the following cases:
- •§ 79. There is another use of it as a formal object: it can be attached to transitive or intransitive verbs to convey a very vague idea of some kind of an object.
- •§ 80. The verbs that most frequently take a cognate object are:
- •The attribute
- •Ways of expressing attributes
- •The position of attributes
- •§ 86. The position of an attribute depends on the following:
- •Types of connection between an attribute and its headword
- •§ 87. From the point of view of their connection with the headword and other parts of the sentence, attributes may be divided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones.
- •The apposition
- •§ 90. An apposition is a part of the sentence expressed by a noun or nominal phrase and referring to another noun or nominal phrase (the headword), or sometimes to a clause.
- •Types of connection between an apposition and its headword
- •§ 91. From the point of view of their relation to the headword, appositions, like attributes, are subdivided into non-detached (close) and detached (loose) ones.
- •The adverbial modifier
- •Obligatory and non-obligatory adverbial modifiers
- •Detached adverbial modifiers
- •§ 98. From the point of view of its structure the adverbial modifier may be simple, phrasal, complex, clausal.
- •Semantic classes of adverbial modifiers
- •§ 100. This adverbial expresses:
- •§ 101. The adverbial of time has four variations:
- •§ 104. This adverbial answers the identifying questions what for? for what purpose? It is most frequently expressed by an infinitive, an infinitive phrase or complex.
- •§ 108. These adverbials have no identifying questions.
- •§ 111. This adverbial is expressed by a noun denoting a unit of measure {length, time, weight, money, temperature).
- •§ 112. This adverbial is expressed by nouns or prepositional phrases introduced by the prepositions but, except, save, but for, except for, save for, apart from, aside from, with the exclusion of
- •Independent elements op the sentence
§ 108. These adverbials have no identifying questions.
The adverbial of attendant circumstances expresses some fact that accompanies the event presented by the modified part of the sentence. This adverbial may be expressed by a gerundial phrase, a participial phrase, any kind of absolute construction, and rather rarely by an infinitive phrase.
We walked three miles without meeting anyone (and did not meet anyone)
"No," said Gabriel, turning to his wife (and turned to his wife)
I dropped my fists and walked away, "Scout's a coward" ringing in my ears.
In the study with the door closed, he stood before the window, smoking his pipe.
The adverbial of subsequent events points out an event following the event presented in the modified part of the sentence. This adverbial is most frequently expressed by an infinitive, or sometimes by a participle.
He woke up to see that it was daylight.
They said something to her, receiving no answer.
The adverbial of comparison
§ 109. This adverbial is introduced by the conjunctions than, as, as if, as though or the preposition like. The adverbial with than is preceded by the comparative of the adverb or the adjective it modifies, the adverbial with as - by the correlative adverbs as or .so:
A mountain is higher than a hill.
The boy is now as tall as his father.
Tom is not so tall as his brother.
Tom speaks French as fluently as a born Frenchman.
Tom speaks French like a Frenchman.
The difference between the use of like and as is important.
Ann talked to us like a teacher means that Ann is not a teacher, whereas the sentence Ann talked to us as a teacher implies that she is a teacher and in talking to us her professional manner was apparent.
The conjunctions as if and as though give the comparison a modal shade of meaning: They precede a participle, an infinitive, or a prepositional phrase, as in:
As if obeying him, I turned and stared into his face.
He prospered greatly, almost as though against his will.
The adverbial of degree
§ 110. This adverbial modifies various parts of the sentence expressed by verbs, adjectives, adverbs and statives, characterizing actions, states and quality from the viewpoint of their intensity. The identifying questions being how much? to what extent?
Adverbials of degree are expressed mainly by adverbs and by prepositional phrases with the preposition to.
The story is extremely long.
All was planned to the split second.
Now you may read to your heart's content.
Sometimes nouns can be modified by an adverbial of degree, as in.
You are quite a man, my boy.
The adverbial of measure
§ 111. This adverbial is expressed by a noun denoting a unit of measure {length, time, weight, money, temperature).
It is used after statal verbs denoting processes, states, or characteristics allowing measurement, such as to measure, to last, to wait, to sleep, to walk, to run, to weigh, to cost. Nouns as adverbials of measure are preceded by numerals or the indefinite article in its numerical function.
The room measures 30 feet across.
We walked (for) five miles.
The box weighs a ton.
The temperature went down ten degrees below zero.
The adverbial of exception