1. Correlation of style, norm, and function

Norm \ Neutrality :: Stylistic colouring

“Style – is deviation from Norm”= departure from the Norm (G.Leech, M.Riffaterre, M.Halliday, R.Jacobson).

Y.M.Skrebnev: “each of the national languages has a norm of its own”.

Y.M.Skrebnev: “There are many Norms as there are sublanguages”.

Neutrality

Stylistically Stylistically

coloured specific : : neutral non-specific

elements elements

Stylistically coloured specific elements

Formal vocabulary : : Informal vocabulary

Bookish : : Colloquial

Correct : : Common

Roman Jacobson Casual : : Non-casual

The notion of stylistic function

Connotation – is a notion, denoting “additional components of meaning which express some emotional colouring or evaluation of the object named” V.V.Gurevich).

Stylistic connotations may be Inherent and Adherent(occasional).

According to the works of Prof.I.R.Arnold, Z.Y.Turaeva (the Leningrad school) - Connotative meaning consists of 4 components: emotive, evaluative, expressive, stylistic. The emotive component of connotation

Emotive connotations express various feelings (love, respect, dignity) and emotions (pleasure, surprise, anger). words with emotive connotations :: words, describing or naming emotions and feelings

The evaluative component of connotation

Negative, positive, ironic or other types of connotation conveying the speaker’s attitude.

Expressive connotation either increases or decreases the expressiveness of the message (intensifiers).

A word possesses stylistic connotation if it belongs to a certain functional style or a specific layer of vocabulary (archaisms, barbarisms, slang, etc).

2. Style and norm: The Varieties of the language

1. Territorial varieties

Literary Norm

Standard English :: Non-standard English.

V.V.Gurevich Standard English - is “the variant that is fixed in the written language, works of fiction, in radio and TV speech”.

Non-standard English - is represented by dialects and variants of the language found in the different geographical areas where English is used.

2. Vocabulary in the aspect of time

archaic or obsolete words that belong to some previous of language development.

“Historisms” - words that reflect some phenomena belonging to the past times.

Neologisms – are the words that have recently come into the language and are still felt as rather new Comparatively new borrowings from other languages, which are not yet completely assimilated in the language (phonetically or grammatically), are stylistically marked as foreign words (sometimes as barbarisms) V.V.Gurevich.

3. Stylistic devices:approaches

I. Expressive means and stylistic devices

Expressive means of the language - are those linguistic forms and properties that have the potential to make the utterance emphatic or expressive (T.A.Znamenskaya).

E.M. – devices serving to strengthen communicative effects of speech (text), as opposed to image-creating means (tropes, simile) (Y.M.Skrebnev).

A stylistic devise – is a literary model (prof. I.R.Galperin calls it a generative model) in which semantic and structural features are blended so that it represents a generalized pattern (T.A.Znamenskaya).

S.D. - is choice or arrangement of units to achieve expressive or image-creating effect (Y.M.Skrebnev).

Various classifications of expressive means

This first theory of style included 3 subdivisions:

• the choice of words: lexical expressive means such as foreign words, archaisms, neologisms, poetic words, nonce words and metaphor;

• word combinations: word order, word combinability, rhythm and period (a complete sentence)

• figures of speech: antithesis, assonance of colons, equality of colons.

Theory of expressive means (I.R.Galperin)

• Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices

• Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices

• Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices

Phonetic expressive means and stylistic devices

▫ Onomatopoeia (direct or indirect)

Ex. Ding-dong, silver bells .. tinkle, tinkle;

▫ Alliteration (initial rhyme)

Ex. To rob Peter to pay Paul;

▫Rhyme (full, incomplete, broken, eye rhyme, feminine, masculine, also stanza rhymes: couplets, triple, cross, framing/ring).

Lexical expressive means and stylistic devices

1)interaction of various types of word’s meanings: A. Means based on the interplay of dictionary and contextual meanings, Metonymy, Irony.

B. Means based on the interaction of primary and derivative meanings: polysemy, zeugma and pun.

C. Means based on the opposition of logical and emotive means: interjections and exclamatory words, epithet, oxymoron.

D. Means based on the interaction of logical and nominal meaning: antonomasia.

2) the interaction of two lexical meanings simultaneously materialised in the context.

periphrasis, euphemism, hyperbole.

3) stable word combinations in their interaction with the context:

Cliches, proverbs and sayings, quotations, allusions, decomposition of set phrases

Syntactical expressive means and stylistic devices

- the juxtaposition of the parts of an utterance (inversion, detached constructions, parallel constructions, chiasmus, repetition, enumeration, suspense, climax, antithesis).

- the type of connection of the parts (asyndeton, polysyndeton, gap-sentence link

- the peculiar use of colloquial constructions (ellipsis “nothing so difficult as a beginning”, aposiopesis = break-in-the-narrative “Good intentions but-…”, question in the narrative, represented speech).

- the transference of structural meaning rhetorical questions, litotes “he was no gentle lamb”).

1) The present subdivision into lexical and syntactical devices may seem dubious: there is a kind of mixture of principles since some devices obviously involve both lexical and syntactical features, e.g. antithesis, climax, irony;

2) Why to place the group “peculiar use of colloquial constructions” among the syntactical means and the group called “ peculiar use of set expressions” among the lexical devices?

The theory of expressive means and stylistic devices by Y.M.Skrebnev

hierarchical arrangement into 5 levels: phonetics, morphology, lexicology, syntax, semasiology (or semantics).

Paradigmatic ← 1.Phonetics → Syntagmatic

Stylistics ← 2.Morphology → Stylistics

← 3. Lexicology →

← 4. Syntax →

← 5. Semasiology →

The theory of stylistic devices, suggested by V.V.Gurevich.

1. Stylistic devices making use of the meaning of language units (figures of speech)

Metaphor (O.I.Glazunova)

• Nominal metaphoric phrase/ construction

• Predicative metaphoric phrase/ construction

• Genitive metaphoric phrase/ construction

• Adverbial metaphoric phrase/ construction

• Attributive metaphoric phrase/ construction

• Simile

Phraseological units

Metonymy

- Synecdoche

- Container instead of content

- Characteristic feature instead of the object

- Name of the instrument instead of the action/doer.

Zeugma, Oxymoron, Hyperbole and Litotes, Epithet, Periphrasis, Antonomasia, Euphemisms, Personification, Allusion, Irony, Rhetorical questions.

2. Stylistic devices making use of the structure of language units

Repetition

1) Lexical repetition

Anaphora – the repetition of he same elements in the beginning of several sentences.

Epiphora - the repetition of he same elements in the end of several sentences.

2) Syntactic repetition (may include syntactic tautology) or syntactic parallelism

Chiasm

- a reversed version of syntactic parallelism.

Climax (gradation) and Anticlimax

Climax – lexical or syntactic repetition of elements which is combined with gradual increase in the emotional colouring of the sentence.

Anticlimax – the opposite to the climax (the final element is obviously weaker in degree).

Ellipsis

The device consists in omission of some parts of the sentence that are easily understood from the context.

Asyndeton

- is a deliberate omission of conjunctions.

Polysyndeton

- (opposite to asyndeton) the repeated use of the same connectors before several parts of sentence.

Antithesis

- a structure that stresses a sharp contrast in meaning between the parts within 1 sentence.

3. Phonetic expressive means and devices

Alliteration, assonance

Alliteration – is a device based on repetition of the same or similar sounds at close distance, which makes speech more expressive.

Assonance – (a variant of alliteration) – 1) repetition of the same vowels only.

Onomatopoeia – (sound imitation) – the use of words which denote some phenomenon by imitating its real sounding (produced by animals or natural noises).

The use of Rhythm and rhyme in versification