31) Complicated sentences.

Iliysh:

1.sentences with homogeneous parts

Homogeneous parts are parts of the same category standing in the same relation to

other parts of the sentence à “contracted” sentences, e.g. I met my relatives and

friends.

2.sentences with a dependant appendix

a.The phrases consisting of the conjunction than and a noun, pronoun, or phrase

following an adjective or adverb in the comparative degree, e.g. I’ve known many

ladies who were prettier than you (are)…

b.The sentences containing an adjective or adverb, which may be preceded by the

adverb as, and an additional part consisting of the conjunction as and some other

word, e.g. His expression had been as bland and clear as the day without.

c.The sentences containing a phrase which is introduced by a subordinating

conjunction, e.g. Tristan had stood about picking up letters, arranging things, as

though preparing with some difficulty just the situation he wanted.

3.sentences with secondary predication

a.Complex object, e.g. I saw him run.

b.Order or request, e.g. He ordered the man to be summoned.

c.The absolute construction, e.g. She was prepared, the situation already falling

gracefully into place about her, to consider it, incredibly enough he thought, as

no more than that.

Double predicate is a compound nominal predicate in which the place of the link

verb is occupied by a notional verb, e.g. He stood quiet near the window.

32) Types of phrases. Syntactic relations between the components of a phrase.

H.Sweet’s, E.Kruisinga’s and O.Jespersen’s theories of the phrase.

Types of phrases:

1) According to the morphological status of its components:

NN, AN, VN, NV, etc.

2) According to their distribution:

1.Parataxis (free relations between the elements); e.g. yes, please.

2.Hypotaxis (dependence between the elements of the phrase):

-Endocentric phrases – the distribution of the phrase is identical with one of its

components (subordinative phrases, e.g. poor John à poor John ran away – John

ran away or coordinative phrases, e.g. mother and father).

-Exocentric phrases - the distribution of the phrase differs from the distribution of

its components (predicative phrases, e.g. John ran away or prepositional phrases,

e.g. beside John).

3) According to the type of connection (syntactic relations between the components):

agreement (concord),government,adjoinment,enclosure

4) Phrases can be subordinative, coordinative, predicative;

Subordinative phrases can be classified according to the type of nucleus:

nominal,verbal,adjectival

Coordinative phrases can be classified according to absence or presence of

connectors: Syndetic &asyndetic or to the type of connection:copulative,

disjunctive,adversative. Predicative phrases can be classified according to the

number of constituents:

binary (cold weather)&multiple (??? very cold weather)

5) According to the syntactic function:subjective,objective,adverbial

6) According to the position of the adjunct:

pre-positive, post-positive, e.g. money to spend, mid-positive, e.g. as good as, the

nucleus frames the structure, e.g. did not know

7) According to the valency (the capacity of the words to enter syntactic relations

with other words) of components:

-obligatory adjuncts (complements), e.g. he made some tea

-optional adjuncts (supplements), e.g. he made some tea for her in the morning

Syntactic relations between the components of the phrase:

Agreement – a method of expressing a syntactical relationship, which consists in

making the subordinate word take a form similar to that of the word to which it is

subordinate. In ME this can refer only to the category of number.

Still agreement of the verb with the noun is a controversial problem. Usually it is

treated as agreement of the predicate with the subject as a phenomenon of sentence

structure.

My family are early risers. à The verb can be independent of noun à there is no

agreement in number of the verb with the noun expressing the doer of the action.

Government – the use of a certain form of the subordinate word required by its head

word, but not coinciding with the of the head word itself.

The role of government in ME is almost as insignificant as that of agreement. We do

not find in English any verbs, or nouns, or adjectives, requiring the subordinate noun

to be in one case rather than in another.

As to nouns, the notion of government may be said to have become quite uncertain

in present-day English. Ex: I looked at my father.

H. SWEET

When words are joined together grammatically and logically without forming a full

sentence, we call the combination a word-group.

When words come together without there being any special connection between them,

they may be said to constitute a word-collocation.

Adjunct-Words and Head-Words

The most general relation b/w words in sentences from a logical point of view is that

of adjunct-word and head-word, or, as we may also express it, of modifier and

modified.

The distinction b/w adjunct an head is only a relative one: the same word may be a

head in one sentence or context, and an adjunct in another. Or the same word may

even be an adjunct and head at the same time.

E. KRUISINGA

Close and Loose Syntactic Groups

A syntactic group is a combination of words that forms a distinct part of a sentence.

We speak of a close group when one of the members is syntactically the leading

element of the group. We speak of a loose group when each element is

comparatively independent of the other members.

Close groups can best be enumerated when we arrange them according to their

leading member: we may distinguish verb groups, noun groups, adjective

groups, adverb groups, preposition groups. The pronoun groups are most

suitably included in the noun or adjective groups to which they are evident parallels.

The members of a loose group may be connected by other words or not – linked or

unlinked groups.

The number of members – double, triple, quadruple, multiple.

When a linked group contains more than two members – some members are linked,

others are not – full-linking and part-linking

Broken and continuous.

Broken – when its members are eparated by a clear pause

Continuous – when there is no such pause b/w its members.

O. JESPERSEN

Junction and Nexus

If we compare the red door and the barking dog on the one hand (junction), and on

the other the door is red and the dog barks or the dog is barking (nexus), we find

that the former kind is more rigid and stiff, and the latter more pliable; there is, as

it were, more life in it. A junction is like a picture, a nexus is like a drama or a

process. In a nexus something new is added to the conception contained in the

primary: the difference is seen clearly:

The blue dress is the oldest.

The oldest dress is blue.

A dancing woman charms.

A charming woman dances.