3) The plane of content and the plane of expression. Polysemy, homonymy,

synonymy. Syntagmatic and paradigmatic relations. Language and speech.

For better understanding the nature of grammar it is important to discriminate the 2

planes of language: the plane of content and the plane of expression.

The plane of content comprises the purely semantic elements contained in language.

The plane of expression comprises the material (formal) units of language taken by

themselves,without their meaning. The 2 planes are inseparably connected, so that no

meaning can be realized without some material means of expression. On the other hand

the correspondence between the planes of content and expression is very complex. This

complexity is clearly illustrated by the phenomena of polysemy, homonymy and

synonymy. In case of polysemy (спинка-спинка) & homonymy (ключ-ключ) two or

more units of plane of content correspond to one unit of plane of expression. In case of

synonymy two or more plane of expression correlate to one plane of content.

Lingual units stand to one another in two fundamental types of relations: syntagmatic and

paradigmatic. Syntagmatic relations are linear relations between units in a segmental

sequence. Morthemes with in the words are connected syntagmatically.

Sintagma it’s a combination of 2 words. There are 4 main types of notional syntagmas:

-predicative (subject & predicate)

-objective (verb & it’s object)

-attributive (noun & it’s attribute)

-adverbal (modified notional words as a verb,adjective or adbverb with it’s adverbal

modifiers.

The other type of relations is called paradigmatic. They exist between elements of the

system outside the strings where they co-occur. Language it’s a system of means of

expression while speech is a manifistation of the system of L in the process of

intecourse. The system of L includes the body of material units-sounds,morphemes,

words, word-groups. Speech-act of producting utterances and utterances themselves.

4) Notion of the morpheme. Types of morpheme. Suffixes and inflexions.

Types of word-form derivation.

Morpheme – is one of the central notions of grammatical theory, without which no

serious attempt at grammatical study can be made. Morpheme is the smallest

meaningful unit of the language. There are may be zero morphemes that is the absence

of morpheme. It indicates a certain meanings (book-books).Zero morpheme indicates

singular form, s-morpheme plurality. In traditional grammar the study of the morpheme

was conducted in the light of 2 criteria (positional and semantic). The combination of

this criteria gives us a classification of morphemes. According to their position-can be

prepositional(prefix),central (root)&postpositional(suffixes&inflexions).

According to semantic criteria roots are the bearers of meaning. Prefix&suffixes-have

lexico-semantic function. Inflexions have no lexical meaning or function, however an

inflexion morpheme can get a lexical meaning in some special cases (colour-colours//

custom-customs)-lexicalization. There is some cases when one and the same morpheme

may function as an inflexion and suffix (morpheme-ing-as a suffix deriving verbal nouns

has inflexion forming gerund/non-finite ver.forms. Suffix-1.morpheme coming after

the root. 2.suffix may be applied to derivation post root morpheme.

Inflexion-1.any morpheme deriving a form of a word and having no lexical meaning.

2.Inflexion is a morpheme expressing case & number in nouns and person & number in

verbs. Morphemes can be: -free&bound(Bound morphemes cannot form words by

themselves, they are identified only as component segmental parts of words. On the

contrary, free morphemes can build up words by themselves, i/e/ can be used “freely”.

e.g. handful – the root hand is a free morpheme, the suffix –ful is a bound morpheme.)

-overt &covert (Overt morphemes are genuine, explicit morphemes building up words;

the covert morpheme is identified as a contrastive absence of morpheme expressing a

certain function. The notion of covert morpheme coincides with the notion of zero

morpheme in the oppositional description of grammatical categories.

e.g. clock-s - 2 morphemes (a lexical morpheme and a grammatical one)

clock-Ø – 2 morphemes (the overt root and the covert (implicit) zero morpheme Ø)

-segmental&suprasegmental (Supra-segmental morphemes are intonation contours,

accents, pauses.)

-additive (Additive morphemes are outer grammatical suffixes, as they are opposed to

the absence of morphemes in grammatical alternation: e.g. look-ed; small-er

The sound alternation (replacive morpheme) a way of expressing grammatical category

by changing a sound inside the root. Suppletive formation is building a form of a word

by different stems:good-better/go-went. On the basis of linear characteristics,

“continuous (linear)” morphemes and “discontinuous” morphemes are distinguished.

The discontinuous morpheme is a 2-element grammatical unit, which is the analytical

from comprising an auxiliary word and a grammatical suffix:

e.g. be … ing – is going (continuous)

have … en – has gone (perfect)

be … en – is taken (passive)

Continuous morpheme is uninterruptedly expressed.